Navajo grammar facts for kids

Navajo is a special language that uses lots of verbs, but not as many nouns. Think of it like this: in English, we have many words for things (nouns) and then words for actions (verbs). In Navajo, many ideas that would be nouns in English are actually expressed using verbs! Besides verbs and nouns, Navajo also has pronouns (like "he" or "she"), adverbs (words that describe verbs), and conjunctions (words that connect ideas, like "and" or "but"). Navajo doesn't have words like English adjectives (words that describe nouns, like "big" or "red"). Instead, verbs do that job!

Verbs: The Heart of Navajo

The most important part of Navajo is the verb. Navajo verbs are built from a main part called a stem. To this stem, you add smaller pieces called prefixes at the beginning. Every verb must have at least one prefix. These prefixes are added in a very specific order, like building with LEGOs where each piece has its own spot.

A Navajo verb can be broken down into different parts. The verb stem is the core meaning. Then, you add prefixes that change the meaning or how the verb works. Some prefixes are like "themes" that don't change much, while others are more flexible. All these parts come together to make a complete Navajo verb.

How Verbs Are Built: The Verb Template

The prefixes on a Navajo verb are added in a very specific order. This is called a position class template. Imagine a verb as having many "slots," and each type of prefix fits into a certain slot. Even though there are many slots, most Navajo verbs aren't super long; they usually have about eight prefixes at most.

Navajo verb prefixes are split into two main groups: disjunct prefixes and conjunct prefixes. The disjunct prefixes are on the far left side of the verb, while the conjunct prefixes are closer to the verb stem. They act a bit differently from each other.

Here's a simplified look at the "slots" or positions for prefixes:

Sometimes, prefixes can actually swap places! This is called metathesis. For example, the prefix ʼa- usually comes before di-. But if di- and ni- are also there, ʼa- will move to be after di-. It's like a special rule for certain combinations.

Pronoun Prefixes

Navajo verbs have special prefixes that tell you who is doing the action (the subject) and who the action is being done to (the object). These prefixes change based on whether it's "I," "you," "he/she," "we," or "they," and if it's one person or many.

Here are the basic subject and object prefixes:

Number	Subject prefixes		Object prefixes
	Singular	Dual-plural	Singular	Dual-plural
First (1)	-sh-	-Vd-	shi-	nihi-
Second (2)	ni-	-oh-	ni-
Third (3)	-∅-		bi-
Third (3o)			yi-
Fourth (3a)	ji-		ha- ~ ho-
Indefinite (3i)	ʼa-		ʼa-
Space (3s)	ha- ~ ho-		ha- ~ ho-
Reflexive	–		(ʼá)-di-
Reciprocal	–		ʼahi-

The fourth person subject prefix ji- is interesting. It's used for important people or animals in stories, or to be polite. It can also mean "one" in a general sense, like "one can cut one's hand." The "space" prefix ha-~ho- can mean "area" or "place," or even "it" when talking about weather, like "it is raining."

Here's an example of how the verb "to freeze" changes with different subjects:

	Singular		Dual-Plural
First	yishtin	"I freeze"	yiitin	"we (2+) freeze"
Second	nitin	"you freeze"	wohtin	"you (2+) freeze"
Third	yitin "he/she/it/they freeze"
Fourth (3a)	jitin "he/she/they freeze"
Indefinite (3i)	atin "someone/something freezes"

Classifiers: Changing How Verbs Work

Classifiers are prefixes that sit right next to the verb stem. They change how a verb acts, like whether it needs an object or not. There are four main classifiers: -∅- (meaning no prefix is there), -ł-, -d-, and -l-.

• The -ł- classifier often makes a verb that didn't need an object now need one. For example, "it's boiling" (no object) becomes "he's boiling it" (needs an object) by adding -ł-.
• The -d- classifier is used in passive verbs (where the subject receives the action, like "it's being singed") or verbs where the action is done to oneself.
• The -l- classifier is similar to -d- but is used with verbs that originally had the -ł- classifier.

Some verbs can use all four classifiers, changing their meaning slightly. For example, a verb about a "roundish object" can mean "it lies there," "it was taken out," "I keep it there," or "I have my head in position," depending on the classifier.

Modes and Aspects: How Actions Happen

Navajo verbs also show modes and aspects. These tell you how an action happens, like if it's finished, still going on, or happens often. While they are called "modes," many of them are actually about the "aspect" of the action. Each Navajo verb can appear in different mode and aspect combinations.

Modes

Navajo has seven main verb modes:

• Imperfective: Describes an action that started but isn't finished yet.
• Perfective: Describes an action that started and is now finished.
• Progressive: Describes an action that is currently happening.
• Future: Describes an action that will happen.
• Usitative: Describes an action that happens regularly or by habit.
• Iterative: Describes an action that happens repeatedly.
• Optative: Describes a wish or desire.

The Progressive and Future modes share the same verb stem form, as do the Usitative and Iterative modes. The Optative often shares its stem with the Imperfective.

Imperfective Mode

The Imperfective mode shows an action that has begun but is not complete. It's often translated as a present tense in English, like "I'm going" or "I'm eating." It can also be used for commands, like "Go!"

Perfective Mode

The Perfective mode shows an action that has been completed. It's often translated as a simple past tense in English, like "I went" or "I ate." But it can also refer to future actions that will be completed.

Progressive and Future Modes

The Progressive mode describes an action that is happening right now, without focusing on its beginning or end. It's like saying "I'm walking along."

The Future mode tells you about an action that will happen. It's like saying "I'll go" or "I'll eat."

Usitative and Iterative Modes

The Usitative mode describes actions that happen regularly or by custom, like "I usually go."

The Iterative mode describes actions that happen repeatedly and customarily, like "I always go outdoors in the morning." The Iterative is different from the Usitative because it uses a special "repetitive" prefix.

Optative Mode

The Optative mode expresses a wish or desire, either positive or negative. You might hear it with words like laanaa ("I wish") or lágo ("I hope it doesn't"). It can also be used to form negative commands, like "Don't look at me!"

Aspects and Subaspects

Besides modes, Navajo verbs also have many aspects and subaspects. These give even more detail about how an action happens. For example, an action can be:

• Momentaneous: happening at a single point in time.
• Continuative: happening over a period of time with movement.
• Durative: happening over a period of time without movement.
• Repetitive: happening again and again.

Different aspects can have different verb stem forms, even in the same mode. This makes Navajo verbs very rich in meaning!

Classificatory Verbs: Describing Objects

Navajo has special verb stems called classificatory verb stems. These verbs don't just describe an action; they also tell you about the shape or physical features of the object being acted upon.

For example, in English, we have one verb "give." But in Navajo, you would use a different verb for "give" depending on what you are giving!

• To say "Give me some hay!" you'd use a verb that means "give a non-compact matter."
• To say "Give me a cigarette!" you'd use a verb that means "give a slender stiff object."

Here are some examples of these special verb stems, showing how they classify objects:

These classificatory verbs also describe how the object moves:

1. Handling: Actions like carrying or taking.
2. Propelling: Actions like tossing or throwing.
3. Free flight: Actions like falling or flying on its own.

For example, for a "round object" (SRO), Navajo has different verbs for "to handle a round object," "to throw a round object," and "a round object moves on its own."

Who Does What: The yi-/bi- Rule

Navajo has a special rule about which noun comes first in a sentence, based on how "alive" or "important" it is. This is called the animacy hierarchy. It goes from most "animate" (like humans or lightning) to least "animate" (like ideas or plants).

humans/lightning → babies/big animals → midsize animals → small animals → insects → natural forces → objects/plants → ideas

Usually, the most "animate" noun in a sentence comes first. If two nouns are equally "animate," either can come first.

• The prefix yi- on the verb means the first noun is the one doing the action (the subject).
• The prefix bi- on the verb means the second noun is the one doing the action (the subject), or that the first noun is having the action done to it.

For example:

(Here, the boy is more animate than the girl, so he comes first, and yi- shows he's the subject.)

(Here, the girl is still more animate, but the sentence is structured so the boy is the subject, and bi- shows the action is happening to the girl by the boy.)

It would sound strange to say:

(Because a bird is less animate than a girl, so the bird shouldn't come first if it's the subject.)

Instead, you'd say:

(Here, the girl comes first because she's more animate, and bi- shows the action is happening to her by the bird.)

This yi-/bi- rule is about who is more "important" or "active" in the sentence, not about whether the sentence is active or passive.

Nouns: Naming Things

As we learned, Navajo uses many verbs where English uses nouns. Most Navajo nouns don't change their form to show if there's one or many, and they don't have "cases" like some other languages (which show if a noun is a subject or object). Often, you don't even need to say the noun if the verb gives enough information!

There are two main kinds of nouns:

1. Simple nouns: These are basic words for things.
2. Deverbal nouns: These are nouns that come from verbs.

Simple nouns can usually have a "possessive prefix" added to them, like saying "my knife" or "her pack."

Noun stem	Gloss	Inflected
béésh	"knife"	bibéézh bi- 3.POSS béézh knife bi- béézh 3.POSS knife "her knife"
hééł	"pack"	shiyéél shi- 1SG.POSS yéél pack shi- yéél 1SG.POSS pack "my pack"

Deverbal nouns are verbs that have been turned into nouns. For example, the word for "clock" (náʼoolkiłí) comes from the verb "it is moved slowly in a circle." The word for "singer" (hataałii) comes from "he sings."

Some deverbal nouns can be very long and complex, like the word for "army tank":

This long word is made up of several parts: "caterpillar tractor," "cannon," "on it," "they sit up," and a noun-making ending.

Possession: Showing Who Owns What

To show who owns something in Navajo, you use special pronoun prefixes attached to the noun.

	Singular	Dual	Plural
First	shi-	nihi-	danihi-
Second	ni-	nihi-	danihi-
Third	bi-
Fourth (3o)	yi-
Fourth (3a)	ha-, hw-
Indefinite (3i)	a-

These prefixes usually have a low tone, but sometimes the last part of the prefix has a high tone, like in shílaʼ ("my hand").

When you say "John's mother," in Navajo you literally say "John his-mother" (Jáan bimá).

Navajo also has a special idea called inalienable possession. This is for nouns that are always "owned" by someone, like body parts, family members, or homes. You can't just say "mother" in general; you have to say "my mother" (shimá) or "someone's mother" (amá).

Postpositions: Where Things Are

Instead of using prepositions (like "under the table"), Navajo uses postpositions (like "the table under"). These words describe where things are, like "under," "on," or "among." All postpositions must have a prefix attached to them, or be joined with a noun.

For example, biyaa means "under it," bikááʼ means "on it," and bitah means "among it." You can combine these with other prefixes to say "under me" (shiyaa).

Numerals: Counting in Navajo

Navajo uses a decimal (base-10) number system, just like English. There are unique words for numbers 1 through 10.

Numbers 11-19 are made by adding a "plus 10" ending (-tsʼáadah) to the numbers 1-9. Numbers 20-100 are made by adding a "times 10" ending (-diin) to the numbers 2-10.

	base numeral		+10 (-tsʼáadah)			x10 (-diin)
1	tʼááłáʼí		łaʼtsʼáadah	(11)		–
2	naaki		naakitsʼáadah	(12)		naadiin	(20)
3	tááʼ		tááʼtsʼáadah	(13)		tádiin	(30)
4	dį́į́ʼ		dį́į́ʼtsʼáadah	(14)		dízdiin	(40)
5	ashdlaʼ		ashdlaʼáadah	(15)		ashdladiin	(50)
6	hastą́ą́		hastą́ʼáadah	(16)		hastą́diin	(60)
7	tsostsʼid		tsostsʼidtsʼáadah	(17)		tsostsʼidiin	(70)
8	tseebíí		tseebíítsʼáadah	(18)		tseebídiin	(80)
9	náhástʼéí		náhástʼéítsʼáadah	(19)		náhástʼédiin	(90)
10	neeznáá		–			neeznádiin	(100)

When you combine numbers, some of the base numbers change a little. For example, "1" has different forms depending on how it's used.

For numbers like 21-29 or 41-49, you can combine the "tens" word with the "ones" word. For example, "22" is naadįįnaaki (20 + 2).

20			40
naadiin	(20)		dízdiin	(40)
21–29			41–49
naadįįłaʼ	(21)		dízdįįłaʼ	(41)
naadįįnaaki	(22)		dízdįįnaaki	(42)
naadįįtááʼ	(23)		dízdįįtááʼ	(43)
naadįįdį́į́ʼ	(24)		dízdįįdį́į́ʼ	(44)
naadįįʼashdlaʼ	(25)		dízdįįʼashdlaʼ	(45)
naadįįhastą́ą́	(26)		dízdįįhastą́ą́	(46)
naadįįtsostsʼid	(27)		dízdįįtsostsʼid	(47)
naadįįtseebíí	(28)		dízdįįtseebíí	(48)
naadįįnáhástʼéí	(29)		dízdįįnáhástʼéí	(49)

For other numbers, like 31 or 53, you add the phrase dóó baʼąą ("and in addition to it") between the tens and ones digits. So, "thirty-one" is tádiin dóó baʼąą tʼááłáʼí.

For hundreds, you use a special ending (=di) with the numbers 1-9, and then the word for "hundred" (neeznádiin).

	base numeral	x100 (=di + neeznádiin)
1	tʼááłáʼí	tʼááłáhádí neeznádiin (100)
2	naaki	naakidi neeznádiin (200)
3	tááʼ	táadi neeznádiin (300)
4	dį́į́ʼ	dį́įʼdi neeznádiin (400)
5	ashdlaʼ	ashdladi neeznádiin (500)
6	hastą́ą́h	hastą́ądi neeznádiin (600)
7	tsostsʼid	tsostsʼidi neeznádiin (700)
8	tseebíí	tseebíidi neeznádiin (800)
9	náhástʼéí	náhástʼéidi neeznádiin (900)

For thousands, Navajo uses the word mííl (which comes from the Spanish word for "thousand"). So, "one thousand" is tʼááłáhádí mííl. For "million," they add the word -tsoh ("big") to mííl, making mííltsoh.