Nottoway language facts for kids
Quick facts for kids Nottoway |
|
|---|---|
| Native to | United States |
| Region | Virginia |
| Ethnicity | Nottoway people |
| Language family | |
| Linguist List | nwy Nottoway-Meherrin |
Nottoway, also called Cheroenhaka, was a language spoken by the Nottoway people. It is closely related to the Tuscarora language. Both are part of the Iroquoian language family.
Today, two Nottoway tribes are recognized in Virginia: the Nottoway Indian Tribe of Virginia and the Cheroenhaka (Nottoway) Indian Tribe. Some Nottoway descendants also live in Wisconsin and Canada. Their ancestors moved there in the 1700s. The last known person who spoke Nottoway fluently, Edith Turner, passed away in 1838. Now, the Nottoway people are working to bring their language back to life.
How We Know About Nottoway
Most of what we know about the Nottoway language comes from a list of words. This list was put together on March 4, 1820. Former President Thomas Jefferson wrote a letter about it in July 1820. He said that John Wood, a math professor, collected the words. He got them from Edith Turner, who was known as the "Queen" of the Nottoway people.
When Peter S. Du Ponceau saw the list, he immediately knew it was an Iroquoian language. He was "struck as well as astonished" by how much it looked like other Iroquoian languages. Later, in 1981, a researcher named Blair A. Rudes studied the language. He found that Nottoway was its own language. However, it was most similar to Tuscarora within the Iroquoian family.
Besides John Wood's word list, a few more words were collected by James Trezvant.
Sounds of Nottoway
Linguists, who are language scientists, have studied the Nottoway word lists. By comparing Nottoway words to similar words in other Iroquoian languages, they have figured out the sounds of Nottoway.
Vowel Sounds
Nottoway had five main vowel sounds. These sounds are similar to those found in many other languages. The symbols used below are from the IPA, which helps show how sounds are made. One of the middle vowel sounds was a nasalized sound, meaning air came out of the nose when it was spoken.
| Front | Central | Back | |
|---|---|---|---|
| High | i | ||
| Mid | e | ə̃ | o |
| Low | a |
Here are some examples of Nottoway words with these vowel sounds. John Wood wrote down the Nottoway words based on English spelling. This means his spelling was not always the same. Comparing them to Tuscarora words helps us understand the correct Nottoway vowel sound.
| /i/ | tariha | ‘hot’ | cf. Tuscarora yuʔnarihə̃ |
| whisk | ‘five’ | cf. Tuscarora wísk | |
| aheeta | ‘sun’ | cf. Tuscarora híhtæʔ | |
| keenu | ‘swamp’ | cf. Tuscarora kí:nə̃ʔ | |
| /e/ | owena | ‘iron’ | cf. Tuscarora uwǽ:nə̃h |
| oter | ‘sand’ | cf. Tuscarora uʔtǽhæh | |
| dekanee | ‘two’ | cf. Tuscarora nǽ:kti: | |
| /a/ | oyag | ‘six’ | cf. Tuscarora úhyaʔk |
| gatkum | ‘blood’ | cf. Tuscarora kátkə̃ʔ | |
| /o/ | owena | ‘iron’ | cf. Tuscarora uwǽ:nə̃h |
| owees | ‘ice’ | cf. Tuscarora uwí:sæh | |
| akuhor | ‘old man’ | cf. Tuscarora rúhuhr, akúhuhr ‘one’s old man’ | |
| /ə̃/ | hahenū | ‘thunder’ | cf. Tuscarora haʔ híʔnə̃ʔ |
| deeshū | ‘stars’ | cf. Wyandot tíšɔ̃h | |
| dekra | ‘eight’ | cf. Tuscarora nǽ:krə̃ʔ | |
| auwa | 'water’ | cf. Tuscarora á:wə̃ʔ |
Consonant Sounds
Nottoway had ten consonant sounds. Like the vowels, these sounds were figured out by comparing John Wood's word list to related languages. Some of these sounds, like 'p', 'm', and 'f', were very rare. They only appeared in a few words that likely came from other languages.
| Lip | Tooth | Palate | Back of Mouth | Throat | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Stop | (p) | t | k | ʔ | |
| Nasal | (m) | n | |||
| Affricate | t͡ʃ ⟨č⟩ | ||||
| Fricative | (f) | s | h | ||
| Approximant | r | j ⟨y⟩ | w |
Here are some Nottoway words that show these consonant sounds. Comparing them to Tuscarora words helped linguists understand the original sounds.
| /t/ | aheeta | 'sun' | cf. Tuscarora híhtæʔ |
| otkum | 'devil' | cf. Tuscarora úʔtkə̃h | |
| oter | 'sand' | cf. Tuscarora uʔtǽhæh | |
| oteusag | 'nose' | cf. Tuscarora uʔtyə̃́hsæh | |
| dekra | 'eight' | cf. Tuscarora nǽ:krə̃ʔ | |
| deeshū | 'stars' | cf. Wyandot tíšɔ̃h | |
| dekanee | 'two' | cf. Mohawk tékeni | |
| /k/ | keenu | 'swamp' | cf. Tuscarora ki:nə̃ʔ |
| kaintu | 'fish' | cf. Tuscarora kə̃́:čə̃h | |
| ekunsquare | 'cheeks' | cf. Tuscarora ukə̃́skaræh | |
| unkoharae | 'eyes' | cf. Tuscarora ukáhræh | |
| waquast | 'good' | cf. Tuscarora wákwahst | |
| aquia | 'deer' | cf. Tuscarora á:kwæh | |
| gatkum | 'blood' | cf. Tuscarora kátkə̃ʔ | |
| oyag | 'six' | cf. Tuscarora úhyaʔk | |
| /ʔ/ | onushag | 'house' | cf. Mohawk kanṹ |
| /č/ | cheer | 'dog' | cf. Tuscarora číhr |
| geekquam | 'gold' | cf. Tuscarora učitkwáhnæh | |
| untchore | 'to eat' | cf. Tuscarora ə̃čú:riʔ ‘it ate’ | |
| yautatch | 'air' | cf. Tuscarora úʔna:č ‘wind’ | |
| unte | 'one' | cf. Tuscarora ə̃́:či | |
| kaintu | 'fish' | cf. Tuscarora kə̃́:čə̃h | |
| /s/ | whisk | 'five' | cf. Tuscarora wísk |
| /h/ | ohonag | 'skin' | cf. Mohawk óhnaʔ |
| /n/ | hahenū | 'thunder' | cf. Tuscarora haʔ híʔnə̃ʔ |
| /r/ | cheer | 'dog' | cf. Tuscarora číhr |
| querū | 'rabbit' | cf. Tuscarora kwǽ:ruh | |
| orwisag | ‘tail’ | cf. Tuscarora uʔrhwə̃́:θæh | |
| dekra | 'eight' | cf. Tuscarora nǽ:krə̃ʔ | |
| quaharrag | 'apple' | cf. Tuscarora kwáhrak | |
| waskarrow | 'hog' | cf. Tuscarora waθkwá:ræh | |
| /w/ | owees | 'ice' | cf. Tuscarora uwí:sæh |
| auwa | 'water' | cf. Tuscarora á:wə̃ʔ | |
| owena | 'iron' | cf. Tuscarora uwǽ:nə̃h | |
| orwisag | 'tail' | cf Tuscarora uʔrhwə̃́:θæh | |
| waquast | 'good' | cf. Tuscarora wákwahst | |
| aquia | 'deer' | cf. Tuscarora á:kwæh | |
| kosquenna | 'mouse' | cf. Tuscarora ruskwǽ:nə̃h | |
| querū | 'rabbit' | cf. Tuscarora kwǽ:ruh | |
| /y/ | oyentu | 'rat' | cf. Tuscarora ruyə̃́ʔtuh |
| gotyakum | 'husband' | cf. Tuscarora katyá:kə̃h | |
| oteusag | 'nose' | cf. Tuscarora uʔtyə̃́hsæh |
Nottoway Grammar
Even though we only have word lists, linguists have learned some things about Nottoway grammar.
Possessive Prefixes
Nottoway used special beginnings of words, called prefixes, to show who owned something. For example, body parts like "hand" or "belly" used the prefix ge- for "my." So, ge-snunke meant 'my hand'. Other things used the prefix ak- for "my," like ak-uhor for '(my) old man'. These prefixes were also used with verbs to show who was doing the action.
| Possessive Prefixes | ||
|---|---|---|
| My (for body parts; I) | ||
| ge- | ge-snunke | ‘my hand’ |
| ge-tunke | 'my belly' | |
| Your (for body parts; you) | ||
| se-/s- | se-tunke | ‘your belly’ |
| se-tarakē | ‘your head’ | |
| Her/One's (for body parts; she) | ||
| ye-/e- | ye-tunke | '(one's) nails' |
| e-skaharant | '(one's) mouth' | |
| My (for other things; I/me) | ||
| ak-/aqu- | ak-uhor | ‘(my) old man’ |
| aqu-eianha | ‘(my) boy’ | |
| Your (for other things; you) | ||
| sa- | sa-ttaak | '(your) bed' |
| sa-tuntatag | '(you) listen' | |
| Her/One's (for family; she/it/one)’ | ||
| go- | go-tyāg | ‘(one’s) marriage’ |
| go-tyakum | ‘(her) husband’ | |
Other Word Parts
Nottoway also used other prefixes and suffixes (word endings) to change meanings. For example, ne(e)- could mean "part of a whole" or help form numbers like "thirty." The ending -ag was often used to make a word a simple noun, like onushag for 'house'.
| Partitive (shows part of a whole or multiples of ten) | ||
|---|---|---|
| ne(e)- | newisha | ‘short’ |
| arsaneewarsa | 'thirty' | |
| Dualic (shows two of something) | ||
| de-, to-, te- | towatgeheterise | ‘lightning’ |
| dewartha | ‘twenty’ | |
| Aorist (shows an action happened) | ||
| wa-, un- | untchore | 'to eat' |
| wasweke | 'to speak' | |
| Semireflexive (action partly done to oneself) | ||
| at-, t-, ate- | satuntatag | '(you) listen' |
| untoreesweg | '(it) drown(ed)' | |
| Reflexive (action done to oneself) | ||
| tat- | untatren | ‘(it) cut’ |
| untatreeyou | ‘(it) kill(ed)’ | |
| Simple Noun (makes a word a basic noun) | ||
| -ag | ototorag | 'door' |
| onushag | 'house' | |
| Internal Locative (means “in” or “under”) | ||
| -coon | oraracoon | ‘the woods’ |
| External Locative (often means “on” or “at”) | ||
| -ke | setunke | ‘your belly’ |
| skeshunke | ‘your flesh’ | |
| Characterizer (person who is part of a group) | ||
| -hoka, -hakaʔ | tcherohakaʔ | ‘Cheroenhaka people’ |
| “Teen” (as in “thirteen,” “fourteen,” etc.) | ||
| -ahr | arsaskahr | ‘thirteen’ |
| dekraskahr | ‘eighteen’ | |
Word Order
Because we mostly have lists of words, it's hard to know exactly how Nottoway sentences were built. However, some things are clear:
- The word for "the" came before the noun, just like in Tuscarora. For example, Hahenũ meant 'the thunder'.
- When two nouns were next to each other, the first one described the second. So, Acquia ohonag meant 'deer skin'.
- Adjectives (describing words) usually came after the noun they described. For example, Unksawa wokenhu meant 'the new year'.
Nottoway Words
Here are some words from the Nottoway language, based on the list John Wood collected.
Words for the Universe
| English | Nottoway Spelling | Similar Words |
| The Sun | Aheeta | cf. Tuscarora híhtæʔ |
| The Moon | Tethrāke | |
| The Stars | Deeshū | cf. Wyandot tíšɔ̃h |
| The Clouds | Uraseque | |
| Thunder | Hahenū | cf. Tuscarora haʔ híʔnə̃ʔ |
| Lightning | Towatgeheterise | cf. Tuscarora næwatkarǽʔnari:ks |
| Air | Yautatch | |
| God | Quakerhuntè | |
| Devil | Otkum | cf. Tuscarora útkə̃h |
| Rain | Yountoutch | cf. Tuscarora wə̃́:tu:č |
| Snow | Kankaus | |
| Ice | Owees | cf. Tuscarora uwí:sæh |
| Fire | Auteur | |
| Water | Auwa | cf. Tuscarora á:wə̃ʔ |
| a river | Joke | |
| a great river | Onoschioke | |
| The Ocean | Owan Fetchota | cf. Tuscarora á:wə̃ʔ ‘water’ |
| a mountain | Yenuntenunte | cf. Tuscarora unə̃́ʔnæh |
| The Woods | Oraracoon | |
| Rocks | Oruntag | |
| Light | Youhanhū | |
| Darkness | Asuntā | cf. Tuscarora uhθə̃́:ʔnæh |
| a Swamp | Keenu | cf. Tuscarora kí:nə̃ʔ |
| Sand | Oter | cf. Tuscarora uʔtǽhæh |
| Gold or Copper | Geekquan | |
| Silver | Wanee | |
| Iron | Owena | cf. Tuscarora uwǽ:nə̃h |
| Heaven | Quakeruntika |
Words for People
| English | Nottoway Spelling | Similar Words |
|---|---|---|
| Man | Enihā | cf. Tuscarora raʔníhə̃h ‘he’s male’ |
| An old man | Akuhor | cf. Tuscarora rúhuhr, akúhuhr ‘one’s old man’ |
| A young man | Aquatio | |
| A boy | Aqueianha | |
| A woman | Ekening | |
| An old woman | Aquasuari | |
| A young woman | Chewasrisha | |
| Death | Anseehe | |
| A dead body | Wahehun | |
| The head | Setarakē | |
| Marriage | Gotyāg | |
| A husband | Gotyakum | cf. Tuscarora katyá:kə̃h |
| A wife | Dekes | |
| A son | Wakatonta | |
| A daughter | Eruhā | |
| A King | Tirer | |
| The belly | Unkē | |
| My belly | Setunke | cf. Tuscarora sætkwə̃́ʔkyæ ‘your stomach’ |
| Your belly | Getunke | |
| The hand or fingers | Nunke | |
| My hand | Sesnunke | cf. Mohawk sesnṹhsaʔke ‘your hand’ |
| Your hand | Gesnunke | cf. Mohawk kesnṹhsaʔke ‘my hand’ |
| The right hand | Panunkee | |
| The left hand | Matapanunkee | |
| The thigh | Otitchag | |
| The knee | Sunsheke | |
| The leg | Franseke | |
| The foot | Saseeke | |
| The hair | Howerac | |
| The eyes | Unkoharae | cf. Tuscarora ukáhræh |
| The mouth | Eskaharant | |
| The ears | Suntunke | cf. Tuscarora shə̃hnə̃́ʔkyæ ‘your ears’ |
| The tongue | Darsunke | |
| The teeth | Otosag | cf. Tuscarora utú:ʔθæh |
| The neck | Steereke | |
| The nose | Oteusag | cf. Tuscarora uʔtyə̃́hsæh |
| The lips | Oarāg | |
| The chin | Ochag | |
| The toes | Seeke | |
| Blood | Gatkum | cf. Tuscarora kátkə̃ʔ |
| Skin | Ohonag | cf. Mohawk óhnaʔ |
| Flesh | Skeshunke | |
| Nails | Yetunke | |
| Heart | Sunke | |
| The cheeks | Ekunsquare | cf. Tuscarora ukə̃́skaræh |
| The breath | Untures | |
| The Eye brows | Eskarunke | |
| A shoemaker | Yuntaquaankum (Yuhtaquaahkum) |
Words for Animals
| English | Nottoway Spelling | Similar Words |
|---|---|---|
| A Cow | Tosherung | |
| A dog | Cheer | cf. Tuscarora číhr |
| A hog | Waskarrow | cf. Tuscarora waθkwá:ræh |
| A boar | Garhusung | |
| A deer | Aquia | cf. Tuscarora á:kwæh |
| A mouse | Kosquenna | cf. Tuscarora ruskwǽ:nə̃h |
| A rat | Oyentu | cf. Tuscarora ruyə̃́ʔtuh |
| A bull frog | Drakon | |
| Fish | Kaintu | cf. Tuscarora kə̃́:čə̃h |
| A Shad or Herring | Kohan | |
| An Eel | Kunte | |
| A crab | Sosune | |
| A snake | Antatum | |
| A bird | Cheeta | cf. Tuscarora číʔnə̃ʔ |
| A turkey | Kunum | |
| A Hen | Tawrettig | cf. Tuscarora tahurǽ:tik |
| A Fox | Skeyu | |
| A Wolf | Huse | |
| A Squirrel | Osarst | |
| A Rabbit | Querū | cf. Tuscarora kwǽ:ruh |
| A house fly | Deēsrere | |
| A Bee | Ronuquam | |
| A Shell | Odersag | |
| A Deer Skin | Aquia ohonag | cf. Tuscarora á:kwæh; cf. Mohawk óhnaʔ |
| A Wing | Ohuwistāg | cf. Tuscarora uyə̃hwí:θnæh |
| A Feather | Awenkrāg | |
| Wool | Ostoharag | |
| The tail | Orwisag | cf. Tuscarora uʔrhwə̃́:θæh |
| Horns | Osherag |
Words for Time
| English | Nottoway Spelling | Similar Words |
|---|---|---|
| A year | Wokenhu | |
| The new year | Unksawa-Wokenhu | |
| The new moon | Dotratung | |
| Spring | Shantaroswache | |
| Summer | Genheke | |
| Autumn | Basheke | |
| Winter | Goshera | |
| Morning | Suntetung | |
| Day-time | Antyeke | |
| Mid-day | Anteneekal | |
| Evening | Gensake | |
| Night-time | Asunta |
Words for Household Items
| English | Nottoway Spelling | Similar Words |
|---|---|---|
| A House | Onushag | cf. Tuscarora unə̃́hsæh |
| The house of some individual | Weynushag | |
| A door | Ototorag | |
| A chimney | Odeshag | |
| A Knife | Osakenta | |
| A Stick | Ocherura | |
| A Gun | Ata | |
| A Bed | Sattaak | |
| Milk | Canu | |
| Spirits | Anuqua | cf. Tuscarora uhnǽ:kyæh 'liquor, spirits' |
| Clothes | Aquast | |
| Smoke | Okyer | |
| Shoes | Otagwāg | cf. Tuscarora uhnáhkwaʔ |
| Stockings | Orisrāg | |
| Leather | Totierhiā | |
| Linen | Nikanrārā | |
| Fat meat | Oskaharag | |
| Lean meat | Oharag | |
| A Fiddle | Eruskarintita | |
| A Bottle | Chewak | cf. Tuscarora učhǽʔwæh |
| Paper | Orirag |
Describing Words (Adjectives)
| English | Nottoway Spelling | Similar Words |
|---|---|---|
| White | Owheryakum | |
| Black | Gehuntee | cf. Tuscarora kahə̃́sči: |
| Red | Ganuntquare | |
| Green | Sekatequantin | |
| Weak | Genuheha | |
| Dry | Yourha | cf. Onondaga óhɛ̃h |
| Wet | Yaorā | |
| Ugly | Yesaxa | |
| Beautiful | Yesquast | |
| Good | Waquast | cf. Tuscarora wákwahst |
| Bad | Wassa | |
| Hot | Tariha | cf. Tuscarora yuʔnaríhə̃: |
| Cold | Watorae | cf. Tuscarora á’thuʔ |
| Angry | Thatcharore | cf. Tuscarora θačaʔrú:rih ‘you’re angry’ |
| Happy | Thatchanunte | |
| Unhappy | Dodoitchewakeraksa | |
| Old | Onahahe | |
| Young | Osae | |
| Long | Ewis | |
| Short | Newisha | cf. Tuscarora tiwæ:θʔáh |
| Great | Tatchanawihiē | |
| Little | Newisha | cf. Tuscarora tiwaʔθʔáh |
| Deep | Tatchanuwiras | |
| Sharp | Watchoka | |
| Round | Tatowerente | |
| Smooth | Chuwatee | |
| Rough | Genuaquast | |
| Hard | Wokoste | |
| Strong | Wakoste | cf. Tuscarora wakáθnæh ‘I’m strong’ |
Numbers
| English | Nottoway Spelling | Similar Words |
|---|---|---|
| One | Unte | cf. Tuscarora ə̃́:či |
| Two | Dekanee | cf. Tuscarora nǽ:kti: |
| Three | Arsa | |
| Four | Hentag | cf. Tuscarora hə̃́ʔtahk |
| Five | Whisk | cf. Tuscarora wísk |
| Six | Oyag | cf. Tuscarora úhyaʔk |
| Seven | Ohatag (Chatag) | cf. Tuscarora čá:ʔnak |
| Eight | Dekra | cf. Tuscarora nǽ:krə̃ʔ |
| Nine | Deheerunk | cf. Tuscarora níhrə̃ʔ |
| Ten | Washa | |
| Eleven | Urteskahr (Unteskahr) | |
| Twelve | Dekaneskahr | |
| Thirteen | Arsaskahr | |
| Fourteen | Hentagskahr | |
| Fifteen | Whiskahr | |
| Sixteen | Oyagskahr | |
| Seventeen | Ohatagskahr (Chatagskahr) | |
| Eighteen | Dekraskahr | |
| Nineteen | Deheerunkskahr | |
| Twenty | Dewarthaunteskahr (Dewartha) | cf. Tuscarora næwáhθhə̃h |
| Thirty | Arseneewarsa | cf. Tuscarora áhsə̃ tiwáhθhə̃h |
| Forty | Hentagneewarsa | cf. Tuscarora hə̃́ʔtahk tiwáhθhə̃h |
| Fifty | Wiskaneewarsa | cf. Tuscarora wísk tiwáhθhə̃h |
| Sixty | Oyagneewarsa | |
| Seventy | Getaganeewarsa | |
| Eighty | Dekranee warsa | |
| Ninety | Deheerunknee warsa | |
| A hundred | Kahorsthree | |
| A thousand | Unteyoasthree (yoasthree) |
Action Words (Verbs)
| English | Nottoway Spelling | Similar Words |
|---|---|---|
| To walk | Jā | |
| To ride | Unksatā | |
| To fly | Getya | |
| To swim | Orerunte | |
| To drink | Ararher | |
| To eat | Untchore | cf. ə̃čú:riʔ ‘it ate’ |
| To throw | Esungwisatoee | |
| To cry | Tehesuhard | cf. Tuscarora næká:θnə̃hr ‘I cry’ |
| To sleep | Kertus (Kentus) | cf. Tuscarora kə̃́:tʔuhs ‘it sleeps’ |
| To fight | Wauntrehu | |
| To wound | Yahterund | |
| To kill | Urtatreeyou (Untatreeyou) | |
| To hear | Thrahurta (Thrahunta) | |
| To see | Waskehee | cf. Tuscarora wáhskə̃ʔ ‘you saw it’ |
| To smell | Saharantoo | |
| To touch | Swarore | |
| To speak | Wasweke | cf. Tuscarora wáhswæʔ ‘you spoke’ |
| To hunt | Kunun | |
| To fish | Watchunund | |
| To love | Tatchadanuste | |
| To hate | Dotautche | |
| To pray | Durtanhara | |
| To stab | Untequara | |
| To cut | Untatren | cf. Tuscarora ə̃ʔnáthræʔn ‘it cut itself’ |
| To break | Wayetcherorag | |
| To drown | Untoreesweg | |
| To hang | Waharee | cf. Tuscarora waʔká:rə̃ʔ ‘I hung it up’ |
| To strike | Untateuheerug (Untatenheerug) | cf. Tuscarora ə̃ʔnatkə̃́hruk ‘it struck itself’ |
| To shoot | Untatchag | |
| To listen | Satuntatag | |
| To wash | Gakuhar | cf. Tuscarora ktú:har ‘I wash’ |
| To run | Sarioka | |
| To leap | Deunti |
Other Nottoway Words
Here are a few more words from a different list, possibly gathered by J. N. B. Hewitt.
| English | Nottoway Spelling | Similar Words |
|---|---|---|
| No | roh (H) | |
| Yes | hokeh (H) | |
| Bark | ohseroch (H) | |
| Corn, maize | ohnehahk (H) | |
| Infant, child | nahkasehkeh (H) | |
| Father | akroh (H) | |
| Mother | ena (H) | |
| Sow | wakatouta (H) | |
| Brother | kahtahtekeh (H) | |
| Sister | ahkahchee (H) | |
| Arm | ohnunchahk (H) | cf. Tuscarora unə̃́čhæh |
| Belly | ohtequahk (H) | |
| Chief | etesheh (H) | |
| Arrow | aruntquaserauk (H) | |
| Earth, land | ahonroch (H) | |
| Lake | kahahtahia (H) | |
| Mountain | newntehs (H) | cf. Tuscarora unə̃́ʔnæh |
| I | ee (H) | |
| Nottoways | Cherohaka (H) |
