Waterloo campaign: peace negotiations facts for kids

After the big defeat of the French Army of the North at the Battle of Waterloo on June 18, 1815, Napoleon gave up his title as Emperor of the French. The French government at the time, called the Provisional Government, kept sending people to talk to the British commander, the Duke of Wellington, and the Prussian commander, Prince Blücher. Both armies were marching towards Paris.

The Provisional Government believed that since Napoleon had stepped down (on June 22) and his son was not recognized as the new emperor, the reason for the war was over. They thought the Seventh Coalition (the group of countries fighting France) had no reason to keep invading France.

However, the commanders of the Coalition armies disagreed. They felt that as long as Napoleon was not captured, French forts were not handed over, Paris was not occupied, and the French army was not disarmed, Napoleon's supporters could still cause trouble in Europe. Wellington especially believed that Louis XVIII was the rightful king of France. He thought any other government would be illegal and could lead to more wars.

As agreed in the Convention of St. Cloud, on July 4, the French Army, led by Marshal Davoust, left Paris and marched towards the Loire River. On July 7, the two Coalition armies entered Paris. The French Parliament's upper house, the Chamber of Peers, stopped meeting. The lower house, the Chamber of Representatives, protested but it didn't help. Their leader, Lanjuinais, resigned. The next day, the doors to the parliament were closed and guarded by Coalition soldiers.

On July 8, the French king, Louis XVIII, returned to Paris. People cheered as he entered the city and took back his throne.

How the Provisional Government Was Formed (June 21–23, 1815)

After the French army lost the Battle of Waterloo, Napoleon decided to return to Paris quickly. He wanted to keep his power as Emperor. He arrived in Paris on June 21. Over the next day, he lost control of the political situation. He was convinced to give up his throne the next afternoon, hoping his son, Napoleon II, would take over.

Then, the French Parliament chose a special group called the Commission of Government. It had three representatives: Lazare, Count Carnot, Joseph Fouché, and General Paul Grenier. It also had two peers: Armand Caulaincourt and Nicolas Quinette.

On June 23, this Commission met for the first time. They formed a new Provisional Government. One of their first actions was to send people to negotiate peace with the Seventh Coalition. They hoped to make peace because Napoleon was no longer the Emperor. However, the Coalition's goal was to make sure Napoleon and his family could never rule France again, as stated in the Treaty of Paris from 1814. The people sent to negotiate were Marquis Lafayette, Sebastiani, D’Argenson, Count Laforêt, and Count Pontecoulant. They left Paris on the evening of June 24.

Peace Talks Begin (June 23–26)

French Offers to Stop Fighting

On June 23, the French government offered to stop fighting. They sent messages to the Brunswick army near Valenciennes and the Prussian army near Zieten. They explained that Napoleon had given up his throne to his son, and a new Provisional Government was in charge. They also said they had sent ministers to talk about peace.

Both Wellington and Blücher refused to stop fighting. They believed it was not what the Coalition wanted. Blücher told the French that they would only stop if Napoleon was handed over. He also demanded that French forts behind the Coalition armies be given up as a guarantee.

On June 25, Blücher received a letter from the French Commissioners at Saint-Quentin. The letter confirmed Napoleon's abdication and his son's new role. It also stated that they were sent to negotiate a ceasefire.

Blücher replied verbally that he would only stop fighting when he reached Paris. He repeated his demands: Napoleon must be handed over, and several border forts must be given up. He also said Wellington had to agree to these terms.

Meanwhile, Marshal Soult gathered the remaining French soldiers at Laon. On June 25, he marched them to Soissons. There, he was supposed to meet Marshal Grouchy and take command of the entire army. But Grouchy arrived first and took command. Soult was upset and left the army for Paris.

Wellington's Response (June 26)

On the night of June 26, Wellington returned to his headquarters. He found a note from Blücher with the French Commissioners' letter. Wellington replied right away. He said he would not agree to stop fighting until the French army put down its weapons.

Napoleon Leaves Paris (June 27–28)

The Provisional Government's Plan

The Provisional Government was busy preparing to defend Paris. But most of them, especially Fouché, wanted to stop the fighting. They knew that Napoleon being in Paris was the main problem.

Efforts to Make Napoleon Leave

The Provisional Government took two important steps. First, they convinced Napoleon to leave Paris and go to the Palace of Malmaison, about 15 kilometers (9 miles) east of the city. He left on June 25. General Becker was sent to Malmaison to protect Napoleon and make sure no one used his name to cause trouble.

As mentioned before, the Coalition was fighting to enforce the Treaty of Paris of 1814. This treaty said Napoleon and his family could not rule France. So, on June 26, the day after Napoleon left Paris, the Provisional Government issued a proclamation. It was in the "name of the French People," not in the name of Emperor Napoleon II. By doing this, they effectively removed Napoleon II from power. This met another of the Coalition's goals.

The Provisional Government wanted the Coalition commanders to start peace talks. They appointed another group of Commissioners: Andréossy, Valence, Boissy d'Anglas, Flaugergues, and la Bernardière ^[fr]. Their job was to go to the Coalition generals and ask again for a ceasefire and an armistice.

Meanwhile, Wellington kept his army moving forward. As the armies got closer to Paris, Fouché, the head of the government, wrote a letter to Wellington. He asked him to stop the war. Fouché said the French people wanted a king who would follow laws, not a dictator like Napoleon or complete chaos like during the republic.

On June 27, Blücher received another request from Andréossy for a ceasefire. Wellington received the same request on June 28. They also asked for a passport and safe passage for Napoleon and his family to go to the United States of America.

Prince Blücher ignored the request, thinking his earlier verbal answer was enough. The Duke of Wellington referred the Commissioners to his reply from June 26 about stopping hostilities. He also said he had no authority to answer the request for Napoleon's passport.

On June 28, there were signs of Napoleon's supporters causing trouble in Paris. Many soldiers who were loyal to Napoleon had returned to the city. If Napoleon had led them, they might have fought fiercely with other groups, leading to chaos in Paris while the enemy was at the gates. So, everyone tried to make the former Emperor leave the capital. They explained to him that the Prussians were near Saint-Denis and might try to capture him at Malmaison.

Napoleon looked at a map and saw that this was possible. He set up defenses. He also offered to serve the government as a general, saying he would fight the enemy and stop their attack on Paris. But the government strongly refused. Fouché said that agreeing to Napoleon's offer would ruin any chance of peace with the Coalition. It would also cause more problems in France. Even if they won a temporary victory, the huge European army would eventually crush Paris. Also, if Napoleon won, he would likely try to become Emperor again, which Fouché did not want.

Napoleon Leaves and Talks Continue (June 29)

Napoleon Heads for America

The Commissioners told Napoleon that he had to leave. Even though they couldn't get a safe passage from the Coalition, arrangements were made for him to go to Rochefort. Two French ships would be waiting there to take him to the United States. Napoleon finally accepted his fate and left for Rochefort at 5:00 PM on June 29. This helped the Provisional Government stay in power and removed a major obstacle in their talks with the Coalition.

French Commissioners Meet Wellington

Earlier on June 29, the new Commissioners met the Duke of Wellington at Etrées. They wanted to negotiate a ceasefire. Wellington told them he had nothing new to add to what he told the previous Commissioners. He still saw Napoleon's abdication as a trick. He would not stop his operations based on it, as it didn't meet the Allies' goals. He explained that besides Napoleon, his supporters were also enemies of the Coalition. Wellington said that before he could agree to any ceasefire, he "must see some steps taken to re-establish a government in France which should afford the Allies some chance of peace."

The French Commissioners pressed Wellington to explain what would satisfy the Coalition. He replied that he had no official power to discuss this. But he offered his private opinion, which he would strongly suggest to the Allies.

Wellington's Policy: Louis XVIII Must Return

Wellington explained to the French Commissioners that there was no hope for peace until Louis XVIII was back on his throne. He thought it would be best if the French Parliament invited the king back without conditions. This would make it seem like their own choice, not something forced by the Coalition.

The Commissioners suggested that Louis XVIII could only return if he agreed to certain things. For example, the National Assembly should be in charge of making laws, not the King. Wellington replied that Louis XVIII planned to form a government where ministers would be responsible for their actions (like in the United Kingdom). He also said the King would be willing to let the Assembly create new laws.

Wellington later reported that the Commissioners explained Napoleon's abdication in favor of his son as a necessary step to calm Napoleon's loyal soldiers. Many of these soldiers were returning to Paris.

While Wellington was talking with the Commissioners, Louis XVIII's Cambray Proclamation of June 28 arrived. This document agreed to many of the points the Commissioners were concerned about. However, they objected to parts that excluded certain people from the King's presence, punished those who helped Napoleon, and called back the old Parliament. Wellington agreed to send a letter to Talleyrand (who signed the Proclamation) about their concerns.

The Commissioners asked if they could form a government under Napoleon II or another member of the imperial family. Wellington made it clear that he would not slow his advance on Paris. He said no other government arrangement except the return of Louis XVIII was acceptable to the Coalition. Wellington gave a detailed report of his discussion with the Commissioners in his dispatch on July 2 to Earl Bathurst, the British Secretary of State for War.

On the night of June 29, Blücher ordered an attack on Aubervilliers. Before the attack, Wellington joined Blücher and told him about the French Commissioners' proposals. Since Blücher was already involved in an important military operation, he could not agree to stop fighting. Both commanders agreed that as long as Napoleon was in Paris, they could not stop their operations without demanding he be handed over. So, Wellington immediately wrote a letter to the Commissioners stating this.

More Peace Talks: Louis XVIII or Paris Destroyed

After Napoleon left, both the French army and the people looked to the National Assembly as their only leader. They trusted it and seemed willing to follow its orders. Fouché, who had been secretly talking with the Coalition, decided to use his influence over many representatives. He managed to remove Napoleon, which was the biggest problem for peace talks. His next step was to prepare the Parliament for the return of the rightful King. He could only do this by saying it was the only way to save Paris from being destroyed by the huge Coalition armies. He also combined this with changes to the French constitution that would satisfy those who wanted a constitutional government.

Fouché knew the French army was determined to fight the Coalition. He saw that if he didn't calm them, Napoleon's loyal soldiers could ruin his plans to keep Paris peaceful. They could also prevent the Parliament from gaining more power. So, he cleverly approached the army's chief, Marshal Davoust. He skillfully explained the political situation and convinced Davoust to agree with him. Davoust wrote to Fouché on the evening of June 29. He said he had changed his mind and believed the only safe path was to agree to a ceasefire and announce Louis XVIII as king.

On June 30, Marshal Davoust wrote a letter to Wellington and Blücher from his headquarters at La Villette. He told them that Marshal Suchet and the Austrian General Frimont had signed a ceasefire. He asked for a general stop to fighting and an armistice, saying the reason for the war was over since Napoleon had stepped down. However, Davoust made it clear that if his request was refused, he would continue to fight to defend his country. Wellington s:Wellington's letter to Davoust, 1 July 1815 replied the next day that his terms had already been given to Davoust's government.

Blücher, who disliked diplomacy, had avoided meeting or writing to French officials. He focused only on the military solution. However, this time he took the chance to reply sharply to Davoust. Davoust had been in charge of Hamburg, where many bad things happened to Blücher's countrymen. Blücher replied in German, showing his dislike for the usual diplomatic language (French) and the country itself. He stated that Napoleon might have given up his throne, but he would continue the war as long as any member of Napoleon's family was on the French throne. He warned that if Paris was attacked, there would be huge destruction. He said, "you know what liberties the exasperated soldiers would take, should your capital be carried by storm." But he also said if he was allowed into Paris, he would "protect the respectable inhabitants against the mob."

French Generals Address Parliament

While trying to get the two Coalition generals to negotiate, Fouché and Davoust had to be very careful. They didn't want the army to misunderstand their actions.

On the evening of June 30, many generals met at headquarters in La Villette. They decided to send a message to the Chamber of Representatives. This message would express the army's strong will to resist and their opposition to the Bourbons (the royal family). Most generals agreed, and Davoust signed it, even though he was secretly working with Fouché to bring back Louis XVIII. The message made it clear that the army's officers were mostly against the king's return. But they would obey the civilian government that had the support of the Chamber of Representatives.

Parliament's Proclamation (July 1)

The Parliament felt it had to issue a Proclamation explaining France's political situation. This document was carefully written by the Constitutionalists, who were the strongest group in the government. It also showed Fouché's clever political strategy.

The Proclamation acknowledged Napoleon's son as the Emperor. But it did not show any hostility towards the Bourbons. It expressed a desire for a government with a monarch and representatives. However, it also stated that the head of the government, whoever it might be, must agree to and follow the constitution.

In short, its general tone was independent enough to gain the approval, or at least the acceptance, of both liberals and Napoleon's supporters. At the same time, it clearly showed the conditions under which a Bourbon king could return to the throne. These conditions would unite those who wanted constitutional order and civil rights. With only a few exceptions, it could be matched with the Cambray Proclamation published by Louis XVIII on June 28.

Wellington Proposes Armistice Terms (July 2)

The Provisional Government knew about the approaching Bavarian, Russian, and Austrian armies. They realized that further resistance to the allies was pointless. So, they told the Commissioners to meet Wellington. They were to report that Napoleon had left Paris on June 29 to go to the United States. They were also to push for a ceasefire.

In a letter to Blücher, Wellington explained the terms he would offer the French Commissioners and why. He said an attack on Paris before the Austrians arrived in force was unlikely to succeed, or if it did, the "loss would be very severe." If they waited for the Austrians, the city could be taken easily. But the Coalition leaders, who were with the Austrian army, would likely want to spare the city, as they did in 1814, because Louis XVIII was their ally. In that case, they would agree to terms similar to what Wellington was offering. Therefore, the two allied commanders were unlikely to have "the vain triumph of entering Paris at the head of our victorious troops." So, it was better to end the war immediately than in a few days.

In a meeting with the French Commissioners, Wellington acknowledged that Napoleon's departure from Paris removed the biggest obstacle to a ceasefire. Only the terms remained. He suggested that the Anglo-Allied and Prussian armies would stop where they were. The French army would leave Paris and cross the Loire River. Paris would be guarded by the National Guards until the King gave other orders. He offered to try and convince Blücher to stop his troops and send an officer to work out the details. But he clearly told them he would not agree to stop fighting as long as a French soldier remained in Paris. After hearing this clear statement from Wellington, the Commissioners left.

Fighting Stops (July 3)

During the night of July 2/3, a French War Council met in Paris. They decided that defending the capital against the two Coalition armies was not possible. Still, the French Commander-in-Chief, Marshal Davoust, wanted to try one more attack before finally agreeing to a ceasefire.

The result was that the French were defeated at the Battle of Issy. They were forced to retreat back into Paris. When it became clear the attack had failed, that the two Allied armies were in full communication, and that a British army was also moving towards Neuilly on the left side of the Seine River, the French high command decided to surrender if the terms were not too harsh.

So, at 7:00 AM, the French stopped firing. Brigadier General Revest ^[fr] (chief of staff for the French III Corps) was sent to the Prussian 1 Corps (Zieten's), which was the closest Coalition force to the capital. He offered to surrender and asked for an immediate ceasefire.

Formal Surrender of Paris

When Blücher heard about the French ceasefire, he demanded that Marshal Davoust open negotiations. Blücher wanted the Coalition to state their terms before he would finally agree to stop fighting. He suggested the Palace of St. Cloud as the meeting place and moved his headquarters there.

The Duke of Wellington traveled to St. Cloud to join Prince Blücher. Two Coalition officers, Colonel Hervey-Bathurst and Karl Müffling (the Prussian officer with Wellington's army), were given full power to negotiate terms with the French. They met the French delegation, which included Louis Bignon (who handled foreign affairs), General Guillemot (chief of staff of the French army), and Comte de Bondy (prefect of the Seine department). They agreed on the surrender of Paris, and the terms were written down in the Convention of St. Cloud.

As agreed in the Convention, on July 4, the French Army, led by Marshal Davoust, left Paris and marched towards the Loire River. On July 7, the two Coalition armies entered Paris. The Chamber of Peers, having been told what happened by the Provisional Government, stopped meeting. The Chamber of Representatives protested, but it was useless. Their President, Lanjuinais, resigned. The next day, the doors were closed, and Coalition troops guarded the entrances.

On July 8, the French King, Louis XVIII, made his public entry into Paris. People cheered as he returned and took back his throne.