Fallacy facts for kids

A fallacy is like a trick in thinking or arguing. It's when someone makes a point, but the way they make it isn't quite right, so their conclusion might not be true, even if it sounds convincing. Think of it as a faulty step in a ladder – it looks okay, but it won't get you where you need to go safely.

Fallacies can be split into two main types: formal fallacies and informal fallacies.

Formal Fallacies: Errors in Logic's Structure

A formal fallacy is a mistake in the structure or form of an argument. It's like building a house with a blueprint that has a flaw, no matter how strong the bricks are. Even if the facts used seem true, the way they're put together doesn't logically lead to the conclusion.

All formal fallacies are types of non sequiturs. This fancy term just means "it does not follow." The conclusion simply doesn't logically come from the starting ideas (called premises).

Here are some examples of formal fallacies:

• Appeal to probability: This happens when someone says something must be true just because it could probably be true. For example, "It's possible for aliens to exist, so they probably do."
• Argument from fallacy: This is when you assume that if someone makes a bad argument for an idea, then the idea itself must be wrong. But a good idea can still be supported by a weak argument!
• Affirming the consequent: This is a common mistake. It goes like this: "If A happens, then B happens. B happened, so A must have happened."
  • Example: "If it rains (A), the ground gets wet (B). The ground is wet (B), so it must have rained (A)." But the ground could be wet for other reasons, like a sprinkler!
• Denying the antecedent: This fallacy goes: "If A happens, then B happens. A didn't happen, so B won't happen."
  • Example: "If you study hard (A), you will pass the test (B). You didn't study hard (not A), so you won't pass the test (not B)." You might still pass if the test was easy or you already knew the material.
• Existential fallacy: This occurs when you assume something exists just because you're talking about a group.
  • Example: "Everyone in the room is smart." This doesn't mean there's actually a person in the room. There might be no one there at all!
• Undistributed middle: This is a bit tricky. It happens when two things are linked to a third thing, but not in a way that connects them directly.
  • Example:
    • "All students carry backpacks."
    • "My grandfather carries a backpack."
    • "Therefore, my grandfather is a student."
  • This is wrong because just because both groups carry backpacks doesn't mean they are the same group. Many people carry backpacks!

Informal Fallacies: Errors in Content or Context

Informal fallacies are arguments that are misleading for reasons other than their structure. The problem isn't how the argument is built, but what it's about or how it's used. To spot these, you often need to look closely at the actual words and ideas being discussed.

Here are some common informal fallacies:

• Argument from ignorance: This is when someone claims something is true because it hasn't been proven false, or false because it hasn't been proven true.
  • Example: "No one has ever proven ghosts don't exist, so they must be real!"
• Ad hominem: This means "to the person." Instead of discussing the actual topic, someone attacks the person making the argument.
  • Example: "You can't trust Sarah's opinion on climate change; she failed her science class last year!"
• Begging the question: This is like arguing in a circle. The conclusion you're trying to prove is already assumed in your starting point.
  • Example: "The Bible is true because it says so, and what it says is true."
• Equivocation: This happens when a word with more than one meaning is used in a misleading way, switching between meanings during the argument.
  • Example: "Feathers are light. What is light cannot be dark. Therefore, feathers cannot be dark." (Here, "light" means both "not heavy" and "not dark.")
• False dilemma: This is also called the "black-or-white fallacy." It presents only two options as if they are the only choices, when in reality there are more.
  • Example: "You're either with us or against us."
• Fallacy of many questions: This is asking a question that assumes something hasn't been proven or agreed upon.
  • Example: "Have you stopped cheating on your tests?" (This question assumes you were cheating in the first place.)
• Irrelevant conclusion (Ignoratio elenchi): This is when an argument might be logical, but it doesn't actually address the main point being discussed.
  • Example: When asked about a new school policy, a student talks about how hard teachers work instead of the policy itself.
• Moving the goalposts: This happens when someone dismisses evidence given and demands even more or different evidence, making it impossible to win the argument.
  • Example: "You showed me proof, but I need even more proof than that!"
• Burden of proof (Onus probandi): This fallacy occurs when someone makes a claim but then demands that the other person prove it wrong, instead of proving their own claim. The person making the claim usually has the "burden of proof."
  • Example: "I say unicorns exist. Prove me wrong!"
• False cause (Post hoc ergo propter hoc): This Latin phrase means "after this, therefore because of this." It assumes that because one event happened after another, the first event must have caused the second.
  • Example: "I wore my lucky socks, and then my team won. My lucky socks made us win!"
• Red herring: This is when someone tries to distract from the main topic by bringing up something completely unrelated that's easier to talk about.
  • Example: When asked why homework wasn't done, a student starts talking about how unfair the school lunch is.
• Reification: This is treating an idea or an abstract concept as if it were a real, physical thing.
  • Example: "Justice demands that you go to jail!" (Justice is an idea, not a person demanding things.)
• Special pleading: This is when someone tries to make an exception for themselves or their idea without a good reason, even though a general rule applies to everyone else.
  • Example: "Everyone else has to follow the rules, but I'm special, so I don't have to."
• Wrong direction: This happens when cause and effect are mixed up. The effect is mistaken for the cause, and vice versa.
  • Example: "The more firefighters at a fire, the more damage is done. So, firefighters cause more damage!" (Actually, bigger fires need more firefighters.)

Faulty Generalizations: Jumping to Conclusions

Faulty generalizations happen when someone reaches a conclusion based on weak or not enough information. The starting points might be related to the conclusion, but they don't strongly support it.

• Accident: This is when a general rule is applied to a specific case where it doesn't fit, ignoring an exception.
  • Example: "It's illegal to use a phone while driving. So, a police officer using a phone in their car is breaking the law!" (Police might have an exception for emergencies.)
• Cherry picking: This means only selecting information or examples that support your point, while ignoring other information that goes against it.
  • Example: A student only shows their parents the A+ grades, hiding the lower ones.
• False analogy: This happens when two things are compared that aren't similar enough to make a valid point.
  • Example: "People are like plants. Plants need water to grow, so people just need water to grow smarter."
• Hasty generalization: This is making a broad conclusion based on a very small or unrepresentative sample. It's "leaping to a conclusion."
  • Example: "I met two rude teenagers today. All teenagers are rude!"
• Overwhelming exception: This is a statement that seems general but has so many exceptions that it's not really general at all.
  • Example: "Birds can fly, except for penguins, ostriches, kiwis, and chickens."
• Thought-terminating cliché: This is using a common phrase or saying to end a discussion, instead of actually thinking about or debating the point.
  • Example: "It is what it is." (Used to stop further discussion.)

Red Herring Fallacies: Changing the Subject

A red herring fallacy is a trick where someone tries to mislead you or distract you from the real topic. It's like throwing a smelly fish (a "red herring") to distract hunting dogs from the trail.

• Red herring: An argument given that is irrelevant and pulls attention away from the main subject.
  • Example: "Why should I clean my room? There are starving children in the world!"
• Ad hominem: (Already explained above) Attacking the person instead of their argument.
• Appeal to popularity (Bandwagon argument): Claiming something is true or good just because many people believe it or do it.
  • Example: "Everyone is buying this new video game, so it must be the best!"
• Appeal to authority: Saying something is true because an "expert" or someone in a position of power says so, even if that person isn't an expert on the specific topic.
  • Example: "My favorite actor says this brand of cereal is healthy, so it must be true."
  • Appeal to accomplishment: Believing something is true or false based on what the person proposing it has achieved.
• Appeal to consequences: Supporting a conclusion by focusing on the good or bad results of an action, rather than the truth of the argument itself.
  • Example: "If we don't believe in ghosts, then life will be boring, so ghosts must exist!"
• Appeal to emotion: Trying to win an argument by making people feel a certain way (like pity, fear, or anger) instead of using logical reasons.
  • Example: "Please give me an A on this project; I worked so hard and I'll fail if I don't get it!"
• Appeal to novelty: Claiming something is better just because it's new or modern.
  • Example: "This new phone app is better just because it's the latest version."
• Appeal to tradition: Claiming something is true or good just because it has been believed or done for a long time.
  • Example: "We've always done it this way, so it must be the right way."
• Appeal to wealth/poverty: Supporting or rejecting a conclusion based on whether the person arguing is rich or poor.
  • Example: "He's rich, so his ideas must be good." or "She's poor, so her ideas can't be trusted."
• Argument from silence: Drawing a conclusion based on someone's silence or a lack of opposing evidence.
  • Example: "My friend didn't deny eating the last cookie, so they must have eaten it!"
• Genetic fallacy: Judging something based only on its origin, instead of its current meaning or value.
  • Example: "That car was made in a country known for bad cars, so it must be a bad car."
• Naturalistic fallacy: Saying something ought to be true just because it is true or natural.
  • Example: "Humans naturally eat meat, so it's okay to eat meat." (This doesn't mean it's morally right or wrong.)
• Reductio ad Hitlerum: Comparing an opponent or their argument to Hitler or Nazism to make it seem bad, even if there's no real connection. This is a very strong and often unfair way to try and win an argument.
• Straw man: Misrepresenting someone's argument to make it easier to attack. You create a "straw man" version of their argument that's weaker than their actual one.
  • Example: Person A: "I think we should spend more on education." Person B: "So you think we should just throw money at schools and ignore all other problems?"
• Tu quoque ("you too"): This is like saying, "You do it too!" It dismisses an argument by pointing out that the person making it doesn't follow their own advice.
  • Example: Parent: "You shouldn't smoke." Teen: "But you smoke!" (This doesn't make smoking okay.)
• Two wrongs make a right: Believing that if someone does something wrong, it's okay to do another wrong thing to cancel it out.
  • Example: "They cheated on the test, so it's okay if I cheat too."

See also

• Critical thinking
• Logic
• Rhetoric