Bracero Program facts for kids

Kids Encyclopedia Facts

The Bracero Program was a special agreement between the United States and Mexico. It started on August 4, 1942, during World War II. The word bracero comes from Spanish and means "manual laborer" or "someone who works with their arms."

This program allowed Mexican farmworkers to come to the U.S. for temporary jobs. It promised them good living conditions, like clean places to stay, enough food, and clean water. They were also guaranteed a minimum wage of 30 cents an hour. The program also protected them from being forced into military service. A part of their earnings was supposed to be saved in a bank account in Mexico.

The Bracero Program officially ended in 1964. It was the largest foreign worker program in U.S. history.

What Was the Bracero Program?

Mexican workers waiting for legal jobs in the United States, 1954

The Bracero Program was managed by several U.S. government departments. These included the State Department and the Department of Labor. The goal was to help with a shortage of farmworkers in the U.S. during World War II. Many American men were away fighting in the war.

The program started in Stockton, California, in August 1942. It promised workers fair treatment. For example, braceros were not supposed to be kept out of "white" areas. However, in Texas, the program was banned for a few years in the 1940s. This was because Mexican workers faced unfair treatment and discrimination there.

Over 22 years, about 5 million braceros worked in 24 U.S. states. This made it a huge program. In the early years (1942-1947), only a small number of braceros came. But both U.S. and Mexican employers soon relied heavily on them. Sometimes, people even paid bribes to get a work contract.

By 1951, a government report showed that having Mexican workers lowered the wages of American farmers. Still, the U.S. government wanted to continue the program. They saw it as a way to help Mexico support the Allied forces in the war. From 1948 to 1964, about 200,000 braceros came to the U.S. each year.

Braceros Working on Railroads

Braceros didn't just work in agriculture. Many also worked on railroads. These railroad workers were similar to farmworkers. They did tough manual labor. This included building new rail yards, laying tracks, and fixing old rails.

Railroad work was important for the war effort. It helped replace American workers who joined the military. About 100,000 men worked as railroad braceros until 1945.

Braceros and the Southern Pacific Railroad

The Southern Pacific railroad company needed more workers. So, they asked the government to bring in Mexican workers. The railroad version of the Bracero Program had many of the same rules as the farm program. It promised good wages, food, housing, and transportation.

However, like farm braceros, railroad workers often faced problems. They sometimes had their wages unfairly lowered. Their living spaces were often poor. Food could be scarce, and they experienced racial discrimination. This unfair treatment continued for many years.

The Role of Bracero Wives

The Bracero Program mainly focused on men. But women played an important role too. Wives often stayed home and waited for their husbands. The U.S. government sometimes worried that families would try to move to the U.S. permanently. This was because the program was meant to be temporary.

Relationships and Bracero Men

Families in Mexico were sometimes worried about men who went to the U.S. as braceros. They feared the men might not return or keep in touch. So, bracero men who wanted to marry had to show they were strong and reliable. This was to prove they were worthy of their future wives.

Women were expected to keep writing letters and stay in love. But bracero men in the U.S. did not always write back. Wives and girlfriends were often not supposed to talk about their worries or feelings. This was seen as socially wrong.

Women's Influence on Men Joining the Program

The Bracero Program offered a chance for men to earn more money. This could help them start a family or improve their businesses in Mexico. Because of this, both the Mexican and U.S. governments tried to convince women about the program's benefits.

Local Mexican officials knew that women's opinions mattered. If a wife was willing to manage the family business while her husband was away, he might join. Workshops were held in Mexican villages to teach women about the program. This encouraged them to support their husbands' participation.

Government Limits on Family Contact

Many bracero men were away from their families for years. They tried to save money to bring their families to the U.S. They also learned about American culture and tried to build a home. Letters were the main way to communicate.

However, these letters were often checked by the U.S. postal system. At first, they looked for complaints about working conditions. But later, if men wrote about bringing their families to the U.S. permanently, their letters were often stopped. The U.S. government feared permanent settlement. They wanted the braceros to return to Mexico after their contracts ended.

Program Changes and End

American farmers wanted a system that would bring in Mexican workers reliably. In 1951, a new agreement was made. The U.S. government became responsible for the workers' contracts, not just the employers. Braceros were not allowed to replace American workers who were on strike. But braceros themselves were not allowed to strike or ask for higher wages.

In 1952, the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 was passed. This law made it a crime to knowingly hide or help someone who was in the U.S. without permission. However, a rule called the "Texas Proviso" said that just employing workers without permission was not considered "hiding" them. This law also led to the creation of the H-2A visa program. This program still allows temporary workers to come to the U.S. today.

Worker Inspections and Conditions

To enter the U.S., potential braceros had to go through many inspections. They had to pass health checks in Mexico. Then, at U.S. reception centers, they were inspected again by health officials. Workers were often stripped and sprayed with DDT, a pesticide.

These centers were very crowded. Up to 40 men could be in a room at once, waiting for hours. Workers sometimes faced harsh treatment from officials. These difficult conditions continued throughout the program's 22 years.

Efforts to Send Workers Back

In 1954, the government started "Operation Wetback." This was a plan to send workers who were in the U.S. without permission back to Mexico. In the first year, over a million Mexicans were sent back.

Labor unions and churches criticized the Bracero Program. They said it hurt American workers. In the late 1950s, the Department of Labor began closing some bracero camps. They also set new minimum wage rules. In 1959, they demanded that American workers get the same wages and benefits as braceros.

In 1961, President Kennedy signed a law that gave U.S. workers the same benefits as braceros. After this, the number of braceros working in the U.S. dropped sharply. By 1963, it was much lower than in 1959.

In 1963, the U.S. House of Representatives voted against extending the program. The Senate approved a short extension. But in the end, the Bracero Program officially ended in 1964.

Bracero Savings and Unpaid Wages

From 1942 to 1948, 10 percent of braceros' pay was taken out. This money was supposed to go into savings accounts in Mexico. Workers were guaranteed to get this money when they returned home. However, many farm braceros never received their savings. Most railroad braceros did get theirs.

Lawsuits in the late 1990s and early 2000s tried to get this money back. It is estimated that about $500 million, including interest, is still owed to former braceros. They continue to fight to receive the money they earned.

Braceros and Worker Strikes

Braceros often faced low pay and poor conditions. This led to many strikes and protests. They wanted better wages and fairer treatment.

Notable Strikes by Braceros

1943, Washington: Braceros went on strike because American workers were paid more for the same job.
1943, Oregon: Workers stopped working to protest being paid "per box" instead of "per hour." They won a pay raise.
1944, Idaho: Braceros struck over low wages in several towns.
1945, Washington: Asparagus cutters struck for twelve days because they earned very little money.
1945, Idaho: Braceros at sugar beet farms struck for higher hourly wages and won.
1945, Idaho: 285 braceros struck against a sugar company and got a 50-cent raise.
1945, Idaho: 170 braceros held a sit-down strike for nine days after cherry pickers refused to work for the low pay.

Many strikes happened in the Pacific Northwest. Two important strikes were the Japanese-Mexican strike in 1943 and a large bracero strike in Idaho in 1946.

The 1943 Dayton, Washington Strike

This strike was special because Mexican braceros and Japanese-American workers joined together. During World War II, some Japanese Americans were forced into special camps. But the government allowed some to leave and work on farms.

In July 1943, a strike happened at the Blue Mountain Cannery. After a false accusation against a "Mexican-looking" person, both Mexican and Japanese workers were restricted. They were not allowed to enter certain parts of the city.

The workers saw this as unfair. About 170 Mexicans and 230 Japanese workers went on strike. After meetings with officials, the restriction order was removed. The authorities were more worried about getting the crops harvested than the false accusation. The strike ended, and most workers stayed to finish the pea harvest.

Why Braceros Were Unhappy

Braceros came to the U.S. to find work and improve their lives. But they had little control over their living and working conditions. Farmers controlled their pay, work hours, and even transportation.

The agreements said workers should get clean housing and medical care for free. But employers often did not follow these rules. Braceros had no say in decisions about their working conditions.

Poor food was another big problem. Workers often complained about the food. They said there was enough food, but it wasn't prepared in a way they liked. Cold sandwich lunches were especially disliked.

Pay was often very low and not paid on time. Sometimes, workers were paid less than the promised 30 cents per hour. The law guaranteed a minimum wage and "humane treatment," but this was often ignored.

Wage Problems

Braceros often faced unfair wages. Their pay was sometimes held back or not paid regularly. Railroad braceros were usually paid by the hour. Farm braceros were sometimes paid by the amount of produce they picked. In both cases, they were often shortchanged.

A complicated part of the program was the "wage garnishment." The U.S. and Mexico agreed to take 10% of bracero wages. This money was supposed to be saved in Mexican bank accounts for when workers returned home. But many braceros never got this money. It is estimated that about $32 million was "transferred" but went missing or was not accessible. Braceros often had to take legal action to try and get their money back.

In 1963, The New York Times reported that the U.S. Department of Labor was investigating false record-keeping by growers. This showed that wage problems were widespread.

Why Braceros Struck in the Northwest

In the Pacific Northwest, there were fewer Mexican government inspectors. This made it hard to check pay and working conditions. Farmers there formed groups to keep wages low and prevent unions. They even used private police and the National Guard to keep "order."

Unlike the Southwest, the Northwest was far from the Mexican border. This made it harder for employers to threaten braceros with deportation. It was also harder for braceros to leave their contracts and blend into a Mexican-American community.

Because of these challenges, the Mexican consulates in Salt Lake City and Portland encouraged workers to protest. They spoke up for the braceros more than in other regions. All these factors led braceros in the Northwest to feel that striking was their only way to be heard.

Braceros found ways to resist unfair treatment. They held many strikes. One method to get more pay was to put rocks in their harvest bags to make them heavier. They also learned that striking during cold weather or when crops needed to be harvested quickly was most effective. Employers often chose to negotiate rather than deport workers. This was because it was difficult and expensive to bring in new braceros.

Braceros also faced discrimination and segregation in labor camps. Some growers built separate camps for white, Black, and Mexican workers. Conditions were often terrible, unsanitary, and poor. For example, in 1943, 500 braceros in Oregon got food poisoning. Lack of good food, bad living conditions, and discrimination pushed braceros to strike and demand better terms.

What Happened After the Program Ended?

After the Bracero Program ended in 1964, a new program called A-TEAM started in 1965. It aimed to solve the farmworker shortage and provide summer jobs for teenagers. Over 18,000 high school students were recruited. But only about 3,300 actually worked in the fields. Many quickly quit or went on strike because of the bad conditions, like extreme heat and poor housing. The program was canceled after one summer.

Importance and Effects

The Catholic Church in Mexico was against the Bracero Program. They worried about families being separated and about workers being exposed to gambling or other religions in the U.S. Starting in 1953, Catholic priests were sent to some bracero communities to help.

Labor unions tried to organize farmworkers after World War II. They saw the Bracero Program as a major obstacle to improving wages for American farmworkers. Leaders like Ernesto Galarza and César Chávez worked to protest the program.

A terrible bus crash in Chualar, California, in 1963, highlighted the harsh conditions for braceros. 31 braceros died when their transportation truck collided with a train. This accident led activist groups to strongly oppose the program.

The end of the Bracero Program in 1964 led to the rise of the United Farm Workers (UFW). This union was led by César Chávez, Gilbert Padilla, and Dolores Huerta. They organized protests, like the Delano grape strike, demanding better labor rights and wages. The UFW helped grape farm laborers get a 40% wage increase.

After the program ended, many Mexican men who had lived in the U.S. chose to stay and bring their families. There was also a rise in immigration without official papers. Farmers then hired more workers who were in the U.S. without permission.

The impact of the Bracero Program on farmworker conditions is still debated. On one hand, its end allowed workers to form unions and win victories. For example, the "short-handled hoe" (el cortito), which caused health problems, was banned due to legal efforts.

However, union efforts faced challenges from farm owners in the 1970s. Union participation among farmworkers has decreased a lot since then.

Some people believe that the current H-2A visa program is similar to the Bracero Program. They say workers still report dangerous conditions. For example, a blueberry farm worker died in Washington in 2017 after working long shifts in hot weather.

A 2018 study found that the Bracero Program did not negatively affect American-born farm workers' jobs or wages. The study concluded that ending the program did not raise wages or employment for American-born farm workers.

Exhibitions and Collections

In October 2009, the Smithsonian National Museum of American History opened an exhibition called "Bittersweet Harvest: The Bracero Program, 1942–1964." It showed photographs and stories from bracero workers and their families. The exhibition helped people understand the history of Mexican Americans and current debates about guest worker programs. It included photos by Leonard Nadel and oral histories. The exhibition traveled to several states after closing in Washington, D.C.

Images for kids

Braceros arriving in Los Angeles in 1942