Brittonicisms in English facts for kids

Brittonicisms in English are ways the English language might have been shaped by the ancient Brythonic languages (also known as British Celtic). This happened when people who spoke Brittonic languages in Britain started learning and using English after the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain.

For a long time, experts thought that Brittonic languages had very little effect on English. But in the 2000s, some new studies suggested that this influence might have been bigger than first thought. These studies looked at how Old English changed into Middle English. They wondered if some of these changes could be because of Brittonic speakers.

Many small, sometimes hard-to-spot, features in English have been suggested as Brittonicisms. However, these ideas are not yet widely accepted by most language experts.

How Experts Studied This

For many years, the main idea was that the ancient Romano-British people had almost no impact on English. This idea became popular in the early 1900s. Famous scholars like J. R. R. Tolkien, who wrote The Lord of the Rings, even mentioned his thoughts on Brittonic influence in his 1955 lecture English and Welsh.

Research into this topic grew a lot in the 2000s. Universities in Germany and Finland started special programs to study the "Celtic roots of English."

New discoveries helped this research. For example, archaeologists and genetic scientists found more evidence that many Brittonic people stayed in Anglo-Saxon England. Before, some thought they were mostly wiped out or left England. If more Brittonic people stayed, they could have influenced the language more.

Also, experts now understand more about how languages change when people learn a new one. They looked at different kinds of "Celtic English," like Welsh English or Irish English. These forms of English clearly show influences from Celtic languages. This helps them understand how Brittonic might have affected English.

Old English and Language Learning

Two Languages at Once?

One idea, called the "diglossia model," suggests that many native Brittonic speakers stayed in northern and western England. The Anglo-Saxons slowly took control of these areas. Over time, the Brittonic people learned the Anglo-Saxon language, but perhaps not perfectly.

This idea suggests that Old English, as written by the educated elite, stayed very formal. But the spoken language of everyday people, including Brittonic speakers, might have been different. After the Norman conquerors took over, the spoken dialects started to be written down. These became what we call Middle English.

This kind of situation, where written and spoken languages are different, has happened in history. For example, Latin was written formally, but people spoke a simpler version.

However, some language experts disagree with this idea for England. They say that many Old English writings seemed to be for everyone, not just the elite. They also point out that no old documents mention such a big difference between spoken and written English.

The Verb "To Be"

In Old English, there were two ways to say "to be." One form, like byð, was used for things that happened regularly or habitually. This is similar to how the Brittonic word *bið (like Welsh bydd) was used.

Some argue this shows a Brittonic influence. But other Germanic languages also have similar ways of using "to be." This suggests it might be a shared feature from a common ancestor language, rather than a direct Brittonic influence.

Changes to Middle English

From Complex Endings to Simple Order

Old English was a "synthetic language." This means it used different word endings to show what a word's job was in a sentence (like who was doing the action or who something belonged to). For example, nouns and adjectives had many different endings.

But Brittonic languages were already "analytic languages." They used word order to show meaning, rather than relying on complex endings. It's thought that Brittonic speakers might have found it hard to learn Old English's many endings.

As English changed from Old English to Middle English, it became more analytic. It lost many of its word endings and started to rely more on word order. Some experts suggest this change was influenced by Brittonic speakers.

These changes happened more in texts from Northern and South-Western England. These were areas where more Brittonic people were thought to live.

Here are some changes in Northern English texts that some link to Brittonic influence:

• Old English had many endings for nouns, pronouns, and adjectives. Brittonic languages did not have these. English lost these endings.
• Old English had several versions of the word "the." Brittonic only had one. English lost the different versions of "the."
• English developed a fixed word order (like Subject-Verb-Object). Brittonic languages already had this.

However, other experts say that all Germanic languages have moved from complex endings to simpler word order over time. They also suggest that the Vikings, who settled in Northern England, might have caused these changes.

The "BE verb-ing" Form

In Middle English, the "BE verb-ing" form became more common (like "I am writing" or "she was singing"). This is called the progressive form. Similar forms are rare in other Germanic languages.

Celtic languages use this structure a lot, and they used it earlier than English. For example, in Welsh, you might say "I am liking chocolate" instead of "I like chocolate." This suggests a possible Celtic influence.

However, other experts believe this form developed naturally within English from older, less common constructions.

Using "Do" for Questions and Negatives

Modern English often uses "do" in questions and negative sentences, like "I don't know" or "Do you know?" This is called "do-periphrasis." It's quite unusual in languages.

Celtic languages use a similar structure. For example, in Cornish, you might say "You do not stay here." This is more common in Celtic forms of English than in standard English.

But the main problem with this idea is that "do-periphrasis" appeared quite late in English, around the 1400s. Many experts think it developed on its own in English.

Other Possible Brittonicisms

Losing the Verb "Weorþan"

In Old English, there was a common verb weorþan (similar to German werden), which meant "to become." Today, English often uses verbs like "go" or "went" instead, as in "Kyledyr went mad."

Celtic languages often use motion verbs in this way. This might suggest a Brittonic influence on English.

Complex Sentence Structures

English sometimes uses complex sentence structures called "clefting." This is when you split a sentence to emphasize a part, like "It was John who broke the window" instead of "John broke the window."

Clefting was common in Old Welsh literature hundreds of years before it became common in English. It's also more common in Celtic forms of English. Some think this might be linked to English developing a fixed word order.

Using "Himself," "Herself"

In English, words like "himself" or "herself" can be used to emphasize something, like "A woman generous to others less fortunate than herself."

Celtic languages and English share this feature. This is quite rare among European languages. In Middle English, the old word "self" combined with pronouns to create these forms.

Northern Subject Rule

Some dialects of English, especially in the north, use a rule where the verb for "they" or "birds" might end in "s," like "birds sings." This is called the Northern subject rule.

This "anti-agreement" is standard in modern Welsh. It was also common in Old Welsh. This suggests a possible Brittonic influence, especially in Northern England. However, some also argue it developed within English.

No "External Possessor"

English usually says "The King's head" or "her hair." It doesn't use a structure like "cut off the head on the King" or "washed the hair on her." This is called an "external possessor."

Most other European languages have this "external possessor" option. But Welsh and Breton, like English, do not. This is another unusual feature that English shares with Celtic languages.

Tag Questions and Answers

English often uses "tag questions" ("You like chocolate, don't you?") and answers that repeat the verb ("Yes, I do").

Celtic languages don't use simple "yes" or "no." Instead, they answer by using the appropriate verb. For example, in Welsh, "Do you like chocolate?" is answered with "I do" (literally "I am"). This might explain why English uses these verb-based answers more often.

Sounds of English

Some experts have wondered if Brittonic languages helped English keep certain sounds. For example, the sounds [w] (as in win), [θ] (as in breath), and [ð] (as in breathe) are still used in Modern English. These sounds have often been unstable in other Germanic languages.

However, other experts disagree. They say that these sounds are also found in some other Germanic languages and dialects. It's hard to prove that Brittonic influence was the only reason English kept them.

See also

• List of English words of Welsh origin
• History of the English language
• Middle English creole hypothesis
• List of English words of Brittonic origin
• Celtic language-death in England