Vikings facts for kids

The Vikings were a group of people from Scandinavia (which is now Denmark, Norway, and Sweden). From the late 700s to the late 1000s, they traveled across Europe by sea. They were known for exploring, trading, and sometimes raiding and settling in new lands.

These skilled sailors journeyed far, reaching the Mediterranean Sea, North Africa, the Middle East, Greenland, and even Vinland (which is now Newfoundland in Canada). This time of their activity is often called the Viking Age. The Vikings had a big impact on the history of Northern Europe and Eastern Europe. They helped shape countries like England and parts of France, and they played a role in forming Kievan Rus', which was an an early state in the area of modern Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine.

Using their special longships, Vikings created settlements and governments in places like the British Isles, the Faroe Islands, Iceland, Greenland, and Normandy. They also traveled along rivers in Eastern Europe, where they were known as Varangians. Groups like the Normans and Icelanders came from these Viking settlements. Some Vikings even reached North America, settling for a short time in Newfoundland. As they spread their culture, they also brought new ideas and goods back to Scandinavia. During the Viking Age, the smaller kingdoms in Scandinavia slowly grew into the three larger countries we know today: Denmark, Norway, and Sweden.

The Vikings spoke a language called Old Norse and wrote using special symbols called runes. For most of the Viking Age, they followed their traditional Old Norse religion. However, between the 700s and 1100s, many of them became Christians. Vikings had their own laws, art, and building styles. Most Vikings were also farmers, fishermen, craftspeople, and traders. Sometimes, the popular image of Vikings is different from what archaeologists and historians have discovered about their advanced culture. For example, there is no proof that they wore horned helmets, which is a common myth.

What "Viking" Means

The word "Viking" has a long history, and experts have many ideas about where it came from. One idea is that it comes from an old English word meaning "settlement" or an old Frisian word. Another idea is that it comes from an Old Norse word for "creek" or "small bay." The word "víkingr" in Old Norse didn't appear in many writings until the 1100s.

Some experts think "Viking" might come from an Old Norse word related to "sea mile," which was a way to measure distance at sea. This word might have been used even before Vikings started using sails on their ships.

In the Middle Ages, "Viking" often meant Scandinavian raiders or pirates. The earliest English writings using the word "wicing" (around 700 AD) translated it as "pirate." The word wasn't used to describe a nationality, as people often used terms like "Northmen" or "Danes" instead.

The word "Viking" became popular in modern English in the late 1700s. At that time, it started to have a more romantic idea of a "brave warrior." By the 1900s, the meaning grew to include not just the raiders, but also all the people from Scandinavia during the period from the late 700s to the mid-1000s. Today, we use "Viking" as an adjective for anything related to these people and their culture, like "Viking Age" or "Viking ship."

Viking History

The Viking Age: A Time of Exploration

The Viking Age in Scandinavia began around 793 AD with the first recorded raids by Norsemen. It ended in 1066 AD with the Norman conquest of England. Vikings used the Norwegian Sea and Baltic Sea as highways to travel south.

The Normans, who conquered England, were actually descendants of Vikings who had settled in northern France in the 900s. So, Viking descendants continued to be important in Europe. Even some kings of England, like Sweyn Forkbeard and his son Cnut the Great, had Viking roots.

Geographically, the Viking Age included Scandinavia and areas where North Germanic people were powerful, like parts of England called the Danelaw. Viking sailors discovered new lands to the north, west, and east. They founded settlements in the Shetland, Orkney, and Faroe Islands, as well as Iceland and Greenland. Around 1000 AD, they even had a short-lived settlement in Newfoundland, Canada, called L'Anse aux Meadows. The settlement in Greenland was started around 980 AD, but it ended by the mid-1400s, possibly due to changes in climate.

Some Vikings, known as the Rus', traveled east. A legendary Viking leader named Rurik is said to have taken control of Novgorod in 862 AD. His relative, Oleg, captured Kiev in 882 AD, making it the capital of the Rus' people. The family of Rurik ruled Russia until 1598.

As early as 839 AD, Scandinavians served as skilled fighters for the Byzantine Empire in a special unit called the Varangian Guard. Many Swedish men joined this guard. There is also proof that Vikings reached Baghdad, a major city in the Islamic Empire, through trade routes like the Volga trade route. They traded goods like furs, tusks, and captured people. Important trading towns during this time included Birka, Hedeby, Kaupang, and Jorvik.

During the Viking Age, the people of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark were very similar in culture and language. After this period, these separate kingdoms slowly became the distinct nations we know today, and they also became Christian.

Viking Connections with Slavic People

Viking and Slavic groups often interacted, sometimes fighting, sometimes trading, and sometimes mixing together. Goods moved between Slavic areas and Scandinavia. Some experts believe that the presence of Slavic people in Scandinavia was more important than once thought.

For example, a 10th-century grave in Denmark, first thought to be a Viking warrior, might have belonged to a Slavic woman from what is now Poland. Also, some early Scandinavian kings and queens had Slavic family connections, showing how these cultures mixed.

Viking Journeys and Settlements

Norwegian Vikings began settling Iceland in the 800s. Later, stories about these islands were written down in sagas after the people became Christian. Vikings explored many northern islands and coasts. They also traveled south to North Africa and brought back people from the Baltic coast and Eastern Europe to work for them.

They were known for raiding, trading, and settling in new places. Early Vikings often returned home after their journeys. Later, they started to build permanent homes in other lands. Vikings led by Leif Erikson, son of Erik the Red, reached North America and set up temporary settlements in what is now L'Anse aux Meadows, Canada. This period of expansion happened during a time of warmer climate.

Viking expansion into mainland Europe was somewhat limited because powerful groups lived to the south. The Saxons, a strong people in what is now northern Germany, often clashed with the Vikings. To protect themselves, the Danes built a large defense wall called Danevirke near Hedeby.

The Vikings saw the powerful ruler Charlemagne force the Saxons to become Christian. This made the Vikings expand their own defenses. The southern coast of the Baltic Sea was controlled by Slavic tribes who were allies of Charlemagne. In 808 AD, Vikings led by King Gudfred destroyed a Slavic city and moved its traders to Hedeby, securing Viking power in the Baltic Sea.

Recent studies of DNA and archaeology suggest that "Viking" might have been more like a "job description" for people who went on these expeditions, rather than a family background.

Why Did the Vikings Expand?

Historians have many ideas about why Vikings began their long journeys. Some believe they were looking for new lands and resources. Others suggest they sought wealth and power.

Some historians think that conflicts with powerful rulers who wanted to spread Christianity also played a role. The rise of Christianity in Scandinavia itself led to disagreements and changes.

Another idea is that the Vikings took advantage of a time when surrounding regions were not very strong. After the death of Charlemagne, his empire broke into smaller, weaker parts. England also had internal problems, making it easier for Vikings to raid coastal towns. The lack of strong navies in Western Europe allowed Viking ships to travel freely. Changes in old trade routes might also have encouraged them to seek new opportunities.

Vikings also captured people to work for them. This was an important part of their economy. Many of these captured people were taken to Scandinavia or sold in other markets.

Jomsborg: A Legendary Stronghold

Jomsborg was a legendary Viking fortress on the southern coast of the Baltic Sea. It existed between the 960s and 1043. The people who lived there were known as Jomsvikings. We don't know the exact location of Jomsborg, or if it truly existed, but it's often thought to have been on the islands near the Oder river.

The End of the Viking Age

As Vikings explored and settled far from home, Scandinavia itself was changing. New ideas and cultures were arriving.

New Kingdoms and Economies

By the late 1000s, royal families in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden were becoming more powerful. They were supported by the Catholic Church, which had grown in influence. Towns began to appear, serving as centers for government, religion, and trade. Money-based economies, similar to those in England and Germany, started to develop.

Becoming Christian

Christianity became strong in Denmark and Norway in the 1000s, and it was growing in Sweden too. Church leaders and local important people worked hard to spread the new religion. Old beliefs and ways of life began to change. By 1103, the first archbishopric (a main church area) was founded in Scandinavia.

As the Scandinavian kingdoms became part of Christian Europe, their leaders' goals changed. One important source of income for Vikings had been capturing people from other European lands to work for them. The Christian Church taught that Christians should not own other Christians as workers. This led to a decrease in this practice across northern Europe, reducing one reason for Viking raids.

Kings in Norway continued to have power in parts of Britain and Ireland, and some raids happened into the 1100s. However, the military goals of Scandinavian rulers shifted. For example, in 1107, Sigurd I of Norway sailed to the eastern Mediterranean to join the Crusades. The kings of Denmark and Sweden also took part in the Baltic Crusades in the 1100s and 1200s.

Viking Culture

We learn about Viking culture, activities, and beliefs from many sources. Even though they didn't write many books, they used an alphabet for inscriptions on runestones. Most written information about Vikings comes from other cultures who met them. Since the mid-1900s, archaeological discoveries have given us a more complete picture of Viking life. These finds show us their homes, crafts, ships, weapons, trade routes, and religious practices.

Stories and Language

The most important early writings about Vikings are texts from Scandinavia and the places they visited. Writing with Latin letters came to Scandinavia with Christianity, so there are few native writings from Scandinavia before the late 1000s and early 1100s. Vikings did write short messages using runes. Most early writings about Vikings were made by Christian and Islamic people outside Scandinavia, often by those who had been affected by Viking activities.

Later writings, like the Icelandic sagas, are also important for understanding Vikings. These stories were written down in Iceland between the 1100s and 1300s. They tell us about Viking Age traditions, family histories, and values.

Vikings also left their mark on language through many Old Norse place names and words. Some of these names are still used today and help us understand where they settled. Examples include Egilsay (Eigil's Island), Ormskirk (Orm's Church), and Vinland (Land of Wine). The parliament on the Isle of Man, called Tynwald, also has Viking roots.

Many common English words come from Old Norse, showing how Vikings interacted with people in the British Isles. In the Shetland and Orkney Islands, Old Norse completely replaced local languages, eventually becoming the extinct Norn language.

Linguistic studies continue to help us learn about Viking culture, how their society worked, and how they interacted with other people. Old Norse also influenced modern languages like Swedish, Norwegian, Danish, Faroese, and Icelandic.

Runestones: Messages from the Past

Vikings could read and write using an alphabet called runor. While few runic writings on paper survive, thousands of stones with runic messages have been found where Vikings lived. These stones often remember people who died, but they weren't always placed at graves. Runes were used until the 1400s, alongside the Latin alphabet.

Most runestones from the Viking period are found in Sweden, especially in the Uppland district. Many runestones mention Vikings who traveled on expeditions, like the Kjula runestone about wars in Western Europe. Swedish runestones from the 1000s often have detailed messages, telling us about families and their lives.

Other runestones mention men who died on Viking journeys. The "England runestones" in Sweden, for example, tell about voyages to England. There are also "Greece Runestones" and "Ingvar Runestones" about trips to the Middle East. These were written in Old Norse using the Younger Futhark alphabet.

The Jelling stones in Denmark date from between 960 and 985 AD. The smaller stone was raised by King Gorm the Old for his wife, Queen Thyre. The larger stone was raised by their son, Harald Bluetooth, to celebrate his conquest of Denmark and Norway and the conversion of the Danes to Christianity. It has images of an animal and Jesus Christ, along with an inscription that says:

King Haraldr ordered these monuments made in memory of Gormr, his father, and in memory of Þyrvé [Thyre], his mother; that Haraldr who won for himself all of Denmark and Norway and made the Danes Christian.

Runic messages are also found outside Scandinavia, in places like Greenland and Istanbul. They tell of journeys to places like Bath, Greece, Jerusalem, Italy, and various parts of Eastern Europe. Viking Age inscriptions have also been found on the Manx runestones on the Isle of Man.

Runic Alphabet in Modern Times

The last known people to use the Runic alphabet were the Elfdalians, who lived in Älvdalen, Sweden. They spoke a unique language called Elfdalian, which is very close to Old Norse. The people of Älvdalen stopped using runes as late as the 1920s. This means runes were used longer there than anywhere else in the world. The last known record of Elfdalian Runes is from 1929.

Elfdalian is now considered a separate language. Today, there are about 2,000–3,000 native speakers of Elfdalian.

Burial Sites: Glimpses into the Afterlife

Many Viking burial sites have been found across Europe, including Scandinavia, the British Isles, and Russia. Viking burial customs varied. They included simple graves in the ground, large mounds (called tumuli), and sometimes even ship burials.

Written sources suggest that many funerals took place at sea. Funerals involved either burying the body or burning it, depending on local traditions. In Sweden, burning was common; in Denmark, burial was more common; and in Norway, both were used. Viking burial mounds are important sources of information about the Viking Age. The items buried with the dead tell us what was considered important for the afterlife.

Some important Viking burial sites include:

• Norway: Oseberg; Gokstad; Borrehaugene
• Sweden: Birka (a World Heritage Site); Valsgärde; Gamla Uppsala
• Denmark: Jelling (a World Heritage Site); Lindholm Høje; Ladby ship
• Estonia: Salme ships – The largest and earliest Viking ship burial ground found.
• Scotland: Port an Eilean Mhòir ship burial; Scar boat burial, Orkney.
• Iceland: Mosfellsbær
• Germany: Hedeby

Ships: The Heart of Viking Life

Archaeological finds have shown us how skillfully Vikings built their ships. There were many types of Viking ships, each for different uses. The most famous is probably the longship. Longships were built for speed and agility, used for warfare and exploration. They had oars and sails, allowing them to travel even without wind. Longships had a long, narrow body and a shallow bottom, making it easy to land in shallow water. These ships were key to the Vikings' ability to "go Viking."

Vikings also built other types of boats for more peaceful tasks. The knarr was a merchant ship designed to carry lots of cargo. It had a wider body and a deeper bottom, with fewer oars used mainly for maneuvering in harbors. A clever Viking invention was the 'beitass', a spar that helped their ships sail better against the wind. Viking ships often carried a smaller boat to move people and goods from the ship to shore.

Ships were a very important part of Viking culture. They were used for daily travel, exploring new lands, trading, and sometimes for battles. They also had religious meaning. Important people were sometimes buried in a ship with their belongings, animals, and even some people who served them. This has been seen in ship burials at Gokstad and Oseberg in Norway, and Ladby in Denmark.

Well-preserved remains of five Viking ships were found in Roskilde Fjord in the 1960s. These ships were sunk in the 1000s to block a channel and protect Roskilde, which was then the Danish capital. These ship remains are now displayed at the Viking Ship Museum in Roskilde.

In 2019, archaeologists found two Viking boat graves in Gamla Uppsala, Sweden. One boat still held the remains of a man, a dog, and a horse, along with other items. This helps us understand Viking burial customs.

Viking Society

Viking society had three main groups, as described in an old poem called Rígsþula. This poem says that the god Heimdallr created these groups. Archaeology has confirmed this social structure.

• The lowest group were thralls, or people who were captured and made to work. They made up about a quarter of the population. These workers were very important for daily tasks, big building projects, and trade. They worked on farms and in the homes of wealthier people. New workers were either born into this group or captured during Viking journeys. They were brought back to Scandinavia, used locally, or traded for goods like silver.
• Free farmers (karlar). These people owned farms, land, and animals. They did tasks like plowing fields and milking cows, often with the help of workers. They were also called bonde or free men.
• Important leaders (jarlar). These were wealthy people who owned large estates, many animals, and many workers. The workers did most of the daily chores, while the leaders managed their lands, hunted, and traveled. When a leader died, they were sometimes buried with their belongings, animals, and even some people who served them, as shown by many archaeological finds.

There was some movement between these groups, and people could sometimes improve their social standing.

Viking society also had communities called félag, which were like clubs or groups for trade or military purposes. Members of these groups were called félagi. There were also official groups in towns and villages for defense, religion, and law.

The Role of Women

Like in other parts of medieval Europe, most women in Viking society were under the authority of their husbands and fathers. However, written records show that free Viking women had more independence and rights than women in many other places.

Most free Viking women were homemakers. A woman's standing was often linked to her husband's. Marriage gave women some financial security and a respected role as húsfreyja (lady of the house). Norse laws gave housewives authority over the home. They managed farm resources, handled business, and raised children, often sharing these tasks with their husbands.

After age 20, an unmarried woman could make her own decisions about where to live and was considered her own person by law. However, marriages were usually arranged by families. The groom would pay a "bride-price" to the bride's family, and the bride brought her own assets into the marriage. A married woman could divorce her husband and remarry.

Some wealthy men had more than one partner or family. A woman could live with a man and have children with him without being married; she was called a frilla. The wife usually had authority over these other partners if they lived in her household. Children born inside or outside marriage had similar rights to inherit property.

A woman could inherit part of her husband's property if he died. Widows had the same independent status as unmarried women. If a woman had no husband, sons, or male relatives, she could inherit property and even become the head of the family. She would keep these rights until she married again.

Women also held religious roles as priestesses and oracles. They were involved in art as poets and rune masters, and worked as merchants and healers. There might have been female business owners, especially in textile production. While stories of shieldmaidens (female warriors) are not fully confirmed, some archaeological finds, like the Birka female Viking warrior, suggest that some women held military authority.

These freedoms for Viking women slowly disappeared after Christianity became widespread, and they are not mentioned after the late 1200s.

Studies of Viking Age burials suggest that women lived longer, with most living past age 35, compared to earlier times. This might be because fewer women died during childbirth.

Skeletal studies also show that girls in rural Scandinavia during the Viking period had good health and nutrition. This suggests that girls were valued and received enough resources to grow strong and healthy.

Appearance and Style

Scandinavian Vikings looked similar to modern Scandinavians, with fair skin and hair colors ranging from blond to dark and reddish. Genetic studies suggest that blond hair was common in eastern Sweden, while red hair was more often found in western Scandinavia. Most Viking men had shoulder-length hair and beards. Workers were usually the only men with short hair. Hair length varied based on personal choice and job. For example, warriors might have had shorter hair and beards for practical reasons. Some men in certain regions even bleached their hair a golden color. Women also had long hair, with girls often wearing it loose or braided, and married women often wearing it in a bun. The average height for men was about 1.70 meters (5 feet 7 inches) and for women about 1.55 meters (5 feet 1 inch).

The three social groups were often recognizable by their appearance. Important leaders wore expensive clothes, often silk, and beautiful jewelry like brooches, belt buckles, necklaces, and arm rings. Almost all Viking jewelry had unique Norse designs. Finger rings were rare, and earrings were not used, as they were seen as a Slavic style. Most free farmers had similar tastes but dressed in simpler, less expensive ways.

Archaeological finds from Scandinavia and Viking settlements in the British Isles show that Vikings were well-groomed and clean. Combs, often made from antler, are commonly found in burial sites and homes. The many combs found in places like Dublin suggest that grooming was a regular practice. These combs often had decorative patterns. All levels of Viking society seem to have cared for their hair, as combs have been found in both common and wealthy graves.

Farming and Food

The sagas tell us about Viking food, but archaeological finds like old garbage dumps have given us even more information. Studies of plant remains from these sites help us understand Viking farming and cooking.

Information from various sources shows that Vikings had a diverse diet. They ate all kinds of meat, including cured, smoked, and fresh cuts, as well as sausages. Seafood was plentiful. They also ate bread, porridges, dairy products, vegetables, fruits, berries, and nuts. Alcoholic drinks like beer, mead, and fruit wine were common, and wealthy Vikings sometimes had imported wine.

Some animals were special to the Vikings, like the Icelandic horse and Icelandic cattle. In York, Vikings mostly ate beef, mutton, and pork, with some horse meat. They often split bones to get the marrow. Pig skulls and feet found in homes suggest that dishes like brawn were popular. Chickens were kept for meat and eggs, and bones of wild birds like grouse and ducks have also been found.

Seafood was very important, sometimes more so than meat. They hunted whales and walrus in Norway and the North Atlantic, and seals almost everywhere. Oysters, mussels, and shrimp were eaten in large amounts. Cod and salmon were popular fish, and herring was important in southern regions.

Milk and buttermilk were popular drinks and cooking ingredients. Milk came from cows, goats, and sheep. They also made fermented milk products like skyr, as well as butter and cheese.

Food was often salted and flavored with spices. Some spices, like black pepper, were imported. Others were grown in herb gardens or gathered from the wild, such as caraway, mustard, horseradish, dill, and wild celery.

Vikings collected and ate fruits, berries, and nuts. Wild apples, plums, and cherries were part of their diet, along with rose hips, raspberries, strawberries, blackberries, and hazelnuts. Large amounts of walnut shells have been found in cities like Hedeby, suggesting the nuts were eaten.

The invention of the mouldboard plough in the early Viking Age changed farming in Scandinavia, allowing them to grow crops even in poorer soils. Grains like rye, barley, oat, and wheat have been found in places like Ribe, dating back to the 700s. Grains and flour were used for porridges and various kinds of bread. Flax was a very important crop, used for oil, food, and especially for making linen cloth.

The food for common people wasn't always the best quality. Research in York shows that Vikings made bread from wholemeal flour, sometimes including seeds from weeds. Some of these seeds, like corncockle, could make people sick. The stone mills used for grinding flour often left tiny stone fragments in the flour, which wore down teeth over time.

Sports and Games

Sports were very popular among Vikings. They enjoyed activities that helped them train for combat, like spear and stone throwing, wrestling (called glima), fist fighting, and lifting heavy stones. In mountainous areas, mountain climbing was a sport. Running and jumping helped build agility and balance. There's even mention of a sport where people jumped from oar to oar on a moving ship! Swimming was also popular, with different types of contests. Children often took part in sports, and women were mentioned as swimmers. King Olaf Tryggvason was famous for his skills in mountain climbing and oar-jumping. Skiing and ice skating were the main winter sports, also used for travel.

Horse fighting was a sport, though the rules are not fully clear. It seemed to involve two stallions fighting near fenced-off mares. These fights often ended with one horse dying.

Icelandic stories often mention knattleik, a ball game similar to hockey, played with a bat and a hard ball, usually on ice. It was popular with both adults and children, but it was a rough game that often caused injuries.

Hunting was a sport mainly in Denmark, where it wasn't just for food. Deer and hares were hunted for meat, and foxes for their furs. Spears, bows, and later crossbows were used.

Games and Entertainment

Archaeological finds and written sources show that Vikings enjoyed social gatherings and festivities. Board games and dice games were popular ways to pass the time. Game boards were often made of carved wood, and game pieces from wood, bone, or stone. Pieces were also made from glass, amber, and even walrus tusk. Vikings played several types of tafl games, including hnefatafl.

Hnefatafl was likely the oldest board game played in medieval Scandinavia. Vikings introduced it to England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland. The Ockelbo Runestone shows two men possibly playing hnefatafl. Some stories suggest that dice games involved betting.

Beer and mead were served at celebrations, where music was played, poems were recited, and stories were told. Music was an art form, and musical skill was valued. Vikings played instruments like harps, lutes, lyres, and fiddles.

Cultural Blending

Viking identity and customs were kept alive in their settlements, but these groups also blended with the local societies. For example, in Normandy, Vikings quickly adopted the local Frankish culture. Links to a strong Viking identity lasted longer in remote islands like Iceland and the Faroe Islands.

Weapons and Warfare

We learn about Viking weapons and armor from archaeological finds, pictures, and stories from the 1200s. By custom, all free Norse men had to own weapons and could carry them at all times. These weapons showed a Viking's social status. A wealthy Viking might have a helmet, shield, mail shirt, and sword. However, swords were probably not used as often in battle as other weapons.

A typical free farmer likely fought with a spear and shield, and most also carried a seax (a utility knife). Bows were used at the start of land battles and at sea. Vikings were known for using axes as a main battle weapon. The Húscarls, who were elite guards, used large two-handed axes that could easily break shields or metal helmets.

The Vikings' beliefs in Norse religion, especially in gods like Thor and Odin, often influenced their approach to warfare.

Conflicts were common in Viking Age Norway. Studies of human remains show that many men and some women had injuries from weapons. Conflicts were less common in Denmark, where society was more organized.

The image of Viking warriors fighting in a wild rage is often seen in popular culture. However, there is no strong evidence from Viking Age writings or archaeology to support the idea that they used special substances to enter a berserk state.

Viking Trade

The Vikings created large trading networks across the known world, greatly influencing the economies of Europe and Scandinavia.

Outside of major trading centers like Ribe and Hedeby in Denmark, Scandinavia didn't use coins much. Instead, their economy was based on bullion, meaning the purity and weight of precious metals, mostly silver. Traders carried small scales to measure weight accurately, allowing them to trade without regular coins.

Goods Traded

Organized trade included everything from everyday items to exotic luxury products. The design of Viking ships, like the knarr, was a key reason for their success as merchants. Imported goods included:

• Spices from Chinese and Persian traders, met in Russia. Vikings used local spices but also imported cinnamon.
• Glass was highly valued and often made into decorative beads.
• Silk was a very important item from Byzantium (modern Istanbul) and China. It showed wealth and status.
• Wine was imported from France and Germany for the wealthy, in addition to local mead and beer.

To balance these imports, Vikings exported many goods:

• Amber, a fossilized tree resin, found on the North and Baltic Sea coasts. It was made into beads and ornaments.
• Fur from animals like martens, foxes, bears, otters, and beavers, which provided warmth.
• Cloth and wool. Vikings were skilled at spinning and weaving high-quality woollen cloth.
• Down from birds, collected and exported for bedding and warm clothing.
• Captured people. Some Viking groups captured many people. Most were taken to Scandinavia, but others were sold in markets in Asia and North Africa.

Other exports included weapons, walrus ivory, wax, salt, and cod. Sometimes, hunting birds were provided from Norway to European royalty.

Many of these goods were also traded within the Viking world, along with items like soapstone and whetstone. Soapstone was used for pottery, and whetstones for sharpening tools. There is evidence of extensive trade in oxen and cattle from Jutland, dating back to around 720 AD. This trade provided leather and meat. Wool was also very important for making warm clothing and sails for Viking ships. Artisans in larger towns were supplied with antlers from organized hunting, used for making everyday items like combs.

Viking Legacy

Influence on the English Language

The Vikings greatly influenced Old English, which helped shape Modern English. Nouns lost their complex grammatical forms, and verb endings became simpler.

How People Saw Vikings in the Middle Ages

In England, the Viking Age began dramatically on June 8, 793 AD, when Norsemen attacked the abbey on Lindisfarne island. This event shocked Europe. A scholar named Alcuin of York wrote, "Never before has such an atrocity been seen." Medieval Christians were unprepared for the Viking attacks and often saw them as a sign of "God's Wrath." This attack on Lindisfarne greatly shaped how people viewed Vikings for centuries. It wasn't until the late 1800s that scholars outside Scandinavia began to truly appreciate Viking art, technology, and sailing skills.

Norse Mythology, sagas, and literature tell us about Scandinavian culture and religion through stories of heroes and gods. These stories were first passed down orally, then written by Christian scholars, like the Icelanders Snorri Sturluson. Many sagas were preserved in Iceland because of the islanders' continued interest in Norse history.

The 200-year Viking influence on European history is full of stories of raids and settlements. Most of these stories come from Western European witnesses. There are also references to Vikings in Eastern chronicles, like the Nestor chronicles and mentions by the patriarch of Constantinople. Other writers, like Adam of Bremen, described Vikings as pirates who paid tribute to the Danish king. In 991 AD, a poem called Battle of Maldon was written about a battle between Viking raiders and the people of Maldon, England.

Later Views of Vikings

Early books about Viking culture appeared in the 1500s. In the 1600s, more Latin translations of the Edda (Norse myths) were published.

In Scandinavia, scholars in the 1600s used runic inscriptions and Icelandic sagas as historical sources. British scholars also became interested in Iceland and early Scandinavian culture in the 1700s, translating Old Norse texts and writing poems about Viking virtues.

The word "viking" became popular in the early 1800s, partly due to a poem by Erik Gustaf Geijer. This poem helped create a new, romanticized image of the Viking that wasn't always historically accurate. This renewed interest in the Old North had political connections. Other authors, like Esaias Tegnér, also wrote popular stories about Vikings.

Fascination with Vikings reached its peak in the late 1700s and 1800s, a period called the Viking revival. This was part of a larger movement of Romantic nationalism. In Britain, archaeologists began to uncover Viking history, and people started to find Viking-Age origins in local words and sayings. New dictionaries of Old Norse helped people read the Icelandic sagas.

Until recently, much of Viking Age history was based on these sagas and chronicles. Now, historians rely more on archaeology and the study of old coins, which have greatly helped us understand this period.

Experimental Archaeology

Experimental archaeology of the Viking Age is a growing field. Several places are dedicated to this, like the Jorvik Viking Centre in the UK, Sagnlandet Lejre in Denmark, and Lofotr Viking Museum in Norway. People who reenact Viking life have tried activities like iron smelting and forging using old Norse techniques.

On July 1, 2007, a reconstructed Viking ship called Sea Stallion began a journey from Roskilde, Denmark, to Dublin, Ireland. The original ship was built in Dublin around 1042 AD. Seventy crew members sailed the reconstructed ship back to its home. The goal was to test how well the ship sailed in rough seas. This expedition provided valuable new information about Viking longships and their society. The ship was built using Viking tools, materials, and methods.

Other replica Viking ships have also been built and tested. The Snorri, a replica of a knarr merchant ship, sailed from Greenland to Newfoundland in 1998.

Common Misconceptions About Vikings

Horned Helmets: A Myth

Despite what you often see in movies and cartoons, Viking warriors did not wear horned helmets. There are only a few ancient images of helmets with protrusions, which might have been for rituals, not for battle. In close-quarters combat, horns would have been very impractical and dangerous for the warrior and their allies.

Historians believe that Viking warriors did not wear horned helmets. The idea of horned helmets became popular in the 1800s, promoted by groups interested in Norse mythology.

Vikings were sometimes shown with winged helmets or clothing from ancient Greece and Rome. This was done to make them seem more important by connecting them to the respected Classical world.

The myth of horned helmets also mixed the Viking Age with the Nordic Bronze Age, which was about 2,000 years earlier. Horned helmets from the Bronze Age have been found and seen in ancient rock carvings, but they were likely used for ceremonies.

Cartoons like Hägar the Horrible and Vicky the Viking, and sports teams like the Minnesota Vikings, have helped keep the myth of the horned helmet alive.

Real Viking helmets were usually conical, made from hard leather with wood and metal reinforcements for regular fighters. Iron helmets with masks and mail were for chieftains. The only original Viking helmet found is the Gjermundbu helmet from Norway, dating to the 900s.

Not Always "Barbaric"

The image of Vikings as wild, dirty savages, often seen in popular culture, is not entirely accurate. Some early accounts of Vikings exaggerated their savagery and uncleanliness.

Viking Genetic Legacy

Recent studies of Viking-era individuals from across Europe have shown that they were closely related to modern Scandinavians. The genetic makeup of these individuals is similar to that of people in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden today.

These studies also confirmed that Norse settlers often married people from the lands they settled in. For example, some individuals found in Italy had Scandinavian genetic markers but also Southern European ancestry, suggesting they were descendants of Viking men and local women. The same pattern is seen in Vikings buried near Lake Ladoga in Russia and in England, showing that Viking men mixed with local families in those places too.

The studies found evidence of Swedish people moving into Estonia and Finland, and Norwegian people moving into Ireland, Iceland, and Greenland during the Viking Age. However, it's hard to tell the difference between Viking-era Danish ancestry in the British Isles and the ancestry of the Angles and Saxons, who migrated from Denmark and northern Germany centuries earlier.

Studies of female ancestry show strong Norse roots in areas closest to Scandinavia, like the Shetland and Orkney Islands. In lands farther away, most Norse ancestry is found in the male family lines.

A study in Liverpool, England, showed significant Norse heritage: up to 50% of males from families living there before industrialization had Norse ancestry. High percentages of Norse heritage were also found in the Wirral Peninsula and West Lancashire, similar to the Orkney Islands.

Recent research suggests that the Celtic warrior Somerled, who drove the Vikings out of western Scotland, might have had Viking ancestry himself.

A study of an elite warrior burial from Bodzia Cemetery in Poland, dating to 1010–1020 AD, showed strong Scandinavian and Kievan Rus' connections. This warrior, who was not local, likely came to Poland with a prince from Kiev and died in battle. This suggests that even high-ranking individuals from Viking backgrounds were part of the political events in Eastern Europe.

Related Pages

• Viking Age
• Kievan Rus'
• Varangians

See also

In Spanish: Vikingo para niños

• Faroese people
• Geats
• Gotlander
• Gutasaga
• Oeselians
• Proto-Norse language
• Swedes (Germanic tribe)
• Ushkuiniks, Novgorod's privateers
• Viking raid warfare and tactics
• Wokou