Charles I of Anjou facts for kids
Charles I (born in early 1226 or 1227 – died January 7, 1285) was a powerful European ruler. He was known as Charles of Anjou. He belonged to the royal Capetian dynasty of France. He also started a new royal family branch called the second House of Anjou.
Charles was the Count of Provence and Forcalquier (1246–1285) in the Holy Roman Empire. He was also Count of Anjou and Maine (1246–1285) in France. He became King of Sicily (1266–1285) and Prince of Achaea (1278–1285). In 1272, he was named King of Albania. In 1277, he bought a claim to the Kingdom of Jerusalem.
Charles was the youngest son of Louis VIII of France and Blanche of Castile. He was first expected to join the Church. But in the 1240s, his path changed. He gained Provence and Forcalquier by marrying Beatrice, who inherited them. He tried to make his rule stronger, which caused problems with his mother-in-law and local nobles. His brother, Louis IX of France, gave him Anjou and Maine.
Charles joined his brother Louis IX on the Seventh Crusade to Egypt. After returning in 1250, Charles made three rich cities—Marseille, Arles, and Avignon—accept his authority.
In 1263, Charles accepted an offer from the Pope. He was to take the Kingdom of Sicily from the Hohenstaufens. This kingdom included the island of Sicily and southern Italy. Pope Urban IV called for a crusade against the current king, Manfred. The Pope helped Charles raise money for his army.
Charles was crowned king in Rome on January 5, 1266. He defeated Manfred's army and took over the kingdom easily. His victory over Manfred's young nephew, Conradin, in 1268, made his rule even stronger. In 1270, Charles joined the Eighth Crusade led by Louis IX. He forced the ruler of Tunis, Muhammad I al-Mustansir, to pay him yearly tribute.
Charles's victories made him the clear leader among the Pope's supporters in Italy. But his power in Italy worried the popes. They tried to guide his ambitions to other lands. They helped him gain claims to Achaea, Jerusalem, and Arles. In 1281, Pope Martin IV allowed Charles to attack the Byzantine Empire. Charles's ships were gathering in Messina for the attack. But then the Sicilian Vespers rebellion started on March 30, 1282. This ended Charles's rule on the island of Sicily. He managed to keep control of the mainland parts, known as the Kingdom of Naples. He did this with help from France and the Pope. Charles died while planning to invade Sicily again.
Contents
Early Life and Family
Growing Up
Charles was the youngest child of King Louis VIII of France and Blanche of Castile. He was likely born in early 1227, after his father had passed away. Charles was the only son of Louis to be born after his father became king. He often mentioned this fact. He was also the first French king named after Charlemagne.
King Louis VIII died in November 1226. His oldest son, Louis IX, became the next king. Louis VIII wanted his youngest sons to have careers in the Church. We don't know much about Charles's schooling, but he got a good education. He understood Catholic beliefs and could find mistakes in Latin writings. He loved poetry, medicine, and law.
Charles later said his mother greatly influenced his education. But Blanche was very busy running the country. She probably had little time for her youngest children. From 1237, Charles lived at the court of his brother, Robert I, Count of Artois. About four years later, he was cared for by his youngest brother, Alphonse, Count of Poitiers. Charles joined his brothers in a military campaign in 1242. This showed he was no longer going to be a churchman.
Provence and Anjou
Raymond Berengar V of Provence died in August 1245. He left Provence and Forcalquier to his youngest daughter, Beatrice. This was because he had given large dowries to her three older sisters. However, the dowries were not fully paid. This made two of her sisters, Margaret (Louis IX's wife) and Eleanor (wife of Henry III of England), feel they were unfairly left out. Their mother, Beatrice of Savoy, said Raymond Berengar had given her the right to use Provence's income.
Many rulers wanted to marry Beatrice. These included Emperor Frederick II and Count Raymond VII of Toulouse. Beatrice's mother placed her under the Pope's protection. Louis IX and Margaret suggested that Beatrice marry Charles. To get France's support against Frederick II, Pope Innocent IV agreed. Charles quickly went to Aix-en-Provence with an army. He wanted to stop other suitors from invading Provence. He married Beatrice on January 31, 1246. Provence was part of the Holy Roman Empire, but Charles never swore loyalty to the emperor. He ordered a survey of the counts' rights and income. This angered his subjects and his mother-in-law.
Charles was a younger son and was meant for a church career. So, his father had not given him a hereditary county or duchy. Louis VIII had planned for his fourth son, John, to receive Anjou and Maine. But John died in 1232. Louis IX made Charles a knight in May 1246. Three months later, he gave him Anjou and Maine. Charles rarely visited these two counties. He appointed regents to manage them.
While Charles was away from Provence, Marseille, Arles, and Avignon rebelled. These were rich cities directly under the emperor. They formed a league and chose a nobleman, Barral of Baux, as their army leader. Charles's mother-in-law supported these rebellious Provençals. Charles could not deal with the rebels because he was joining his brother's crusade. To calm his mother-in-law, he recognized her right to rule Forcalquier. He also gave her a third of his income from Provence.
Seventh Crusade
In December 1244, Louis IX promised to lead a crusade. His three brothers—Robert, Alphonse, and Charles—also joined, even though their mother strongly disagreed. Preparations took years. The crusaders set sail on August 25, 1248. After months in Cyprus, they invaded Egypt on June 5, 1249. They captured Damietta and decided to attack Cairo in November. During their advance, Charles showed great bravery. He saved many crusaders' lives. Robert of Artois died fighting the Egyptians. His three brothers survived but had to stop the campaign. They were captured on April 6, 1250, while leaving Egypt. The Egyptians released Louis, Charles, and Alphonse for a large sum of money and the return of Damietta.
During their trip to Acre, Charles angered Louis by gambling. Louis was mourning Robert's death. Louis stayed in the Holy Land, but Charles returned to France in October 1250.
Expanding His Power
Conflicts and Stronger Rule
Charles's officers continued to survey his rights and income in Provence. This caused a new rebellion while he was away. When he returned, he used both talks and military force. The Archbishop of Arles and the Bishop of Digne gave their secular rights in their towns to Charles in 1250. His brother, Alphonse, helped him militarily. Arles was the first town to surrender in April 1251. In May, they forced Avignon to accept their joint rule. A month later, Barral of Baux also gave up. Marseilles was the only town to resist for several months. But it also sought peace in July 1252. Its citizens accepted Charles as their lord but kept their self-governing bodies.
Charles's officials kept checking his rights. They visited each town and held public meetings to gather information. The count's salt monopoly was started across the whole county. By the late 1250s, income from salt made up about half of the state's money. Charles removed local taxes and encouraged shipbuilding and grain trade. He ordered new coins to be made for smaller transactions.
Emperor Frederick II, who also ruled Sicily, died in 1250. The Kingdom of Sicily, also called the Regno, included the island of Sicily and southern Italy. Pope Innocent IV claimed the Regno now belonged to the Pope. The Pope first offered it to Richard of Cornwall. But Richard did not want to fight Frederick's son, Conrad IV of Germany. Then the Pope offered to give the kingdom to Charles. Charles asked Louis IX, who told him not to accept. Louis thought Conrad was the rightful ruler. After Charles told the Pope he would not take the Regno, the Pope offered it to Edmund of Lancaster.
Queen Blanche, who had governed France during Louis' crusade, died on December 1, 1252. Louis made Alphonse and Charles co-regents so he could stay in the Holy Land. Margaret II, Countess of Flanders and Hainaut had a conflict with her son from her first marriage, John of Avesnes. After her sons from her second marriage were captured in July 1253, she needed help to free them. She promised Hainaut to Charles, ignoring Louis IX's 1246 decision that Hainaut should go to John. Charles accepted and invaded Hainaut, forcing most local nobles to swear loyalty to him. After Louis IX returned to France, he insisted his decision be followed. In November 1255, he ordered Charles to return Hainaut to Margaret. But her sons had to swear loyalty to Charles. Louis also ruled that Margaret had to pay Charles a large sum of money over 13 years.
Charles returned to Provence, which was again restless. His mother-in-law still supported the rebellious Boniface of Castellane. But Louis IX convinced her to return Forcalquier to Charles. She also gave up her claims for a payment from Charles and a pension from Louis in November 1256. A takeover by Charles's supporters in Marseilles led to all political power there going to his officials. Charles continued to expand his power along Provence's borders for the next four years. He gained lands in the Lower Alps. The ruler of Orange gave him the title of regent of the Kingdom of Arles. The citizens of Cuneo, a town on the routes from Provence to Lombardy, asked for Charles's protection in July 1259. Other nearby towns also accepted his rule. Many local rulers paid him homage.
Emperor Frederick II's son, Manfred, had been crowned king of Sicily in 1258. After English nobles opposed a war against Manfred, Pope Alexander IV cancelled the grant of Sicily to Edmund of Lancaster. Alexander's successor, Pope Urban IV, wanted to end the Emperor's rule in Italy. He sent his envoy to Paris to talk with Louis IX about Charles taking the Sicilian throne. Charles met with the Pope's envoy in early 1262.
While Charles was away, Boniface of Castellane started a new revolt in Provence. The citizens of Marseilles kicked out Charles's officials. But Barral of Baux stopped the rebellion from spreading before Charles returned. Charles gave up Ventimiglia to the Republic of Genoa to ensure they stayed neutral. He defeated the rebels and forced Castellane into exile. With help from James I of Aragon, a peace was made with Marseilles. Its defenses were taken down, and the townspeople gave up their weapons. But the town kept its self-rule.
Conquering the Regno
Louis IX decided to support Charles's military campaign in Italy in May 1263. Pope Urban IV promised to declare a crusade against Manfred. Charles promised he would not take any offices in Italian towns. Manfred tried to take over Rome, but the Pope's supporters elected Charles as senator (head of Rome's government). Charles accepted. Some cardinals asked the Pope to cancel the agreement. But the Pope, needing Charles's help against Manfred, could not break with him.
In spring 1264, Cardinals Simon of Brie and Guy Foulquois went to France. They aimed to make a deal and get support for the crusade. Charles sent troops to Rome to protect the Pope from Manfred's allies. At Foulquois' request, Charles's sister-in-law Margaret promised not to act against Charles while he was away. Foulquois also convinced French and Provençal church leaders to give money for the crusade. Pope Urban died before the final agreement was made. Charles planned his campaign against Sicily during this time. He made agreements for his army's route through Lombardy. He also had the leaders of the Provençal rebels executed.
Foulquois was elected pope in February 1265. He quickly confirmed Charles's senatorship and urged him to come to Rome. Charles agreed to rule the Kingdom of Sicily as the Pope's vassal. He would pay a yearly tribute. He also promised never to seek the title of emperor. He sailed from Marseilles on May 10 and landed ten days later. He became senator on June 21. A week later, four cardinals gave him the Regno. To pay for the war, he borrowed money from Italian bankers with the Pope's help. Five cardinals crowned him king of Sicily on January 5, 1266. Crusaders from France and Provence, a large army, arrived in Rome ten days later.
Charles decided to invade southern Italy right away. He could not afford a long campaign. He left Rome on January 20, 1266. He marched towards Naples. But he changed his plan after hearing about Manfred's forces near Capua. He led his troops across the Apennines towards Benevento. Manfred also rushed to the town and got there before Charles. Manfred worried that delays would make his people disloyal. So, he attacked Charles's army on February 26, 1266. In the Battle of Benevento, Manfred's army was defeated, and he was killed.
Resistance across the Regno collapsed. Towns surrendered even before Charles's troops reached them. The Muslims of Lucera, a colony set up during Frederick II's rule, paid him homage. His commander took control of the island of Sicily. Manfred's wife and children were captured. Charles claimed her dowry—the island of Corfu and the region of Durazzo (now Durrës in Albania). His troops took Corfu before the end of the year.
Conradin's Challenge
Charles was kind to Manfred's supporters at first. But they did not believe this would last. They knew he had promised to return lands to the Pope's supporters who had been kicked out. Charles also could not win the loyalty of common people. This was partly because he kept collecting a tax that popes said was illegal. He banned foreign money in large deals and profited from changing foreign money to local coins. He also traded in grain, spices, and sugar.
Pope Clement criticized Charles for his way of ruling. He called him arrogant and stubborn. Charles's growing power in northern Italy also worried Clement. To calm the Pope, Charles gave up his senatorship in May 1267. His successors demanded repayment of money Charles and the Pope had borrowed.
Victories by the Ghibellines (supporters of the imperial family) forced the Pope to ask Charles to send troops to Tuscany. Charles's troops drove the Ghibellines from Florence in April 1267. Charles was elected ruler of Florence and Lucca for seven years. He quickly went to Tuscany. Charles's expansion near the Papal States worried Pope Clement. He decided to change Charles's goals. The Pope called him to Viterbo. He made Charles promise to give up all claims to Tuscany in three years. He also convinced Charles to make agreements with William of Villehardouin, Prince of Achaea, and the Latin Emperor Baldwin II.
According to the first treaty, Villehardouin accepted Charles's authority. He made Charles's younger son, Philip, his heir. If Philip died without children, Charles would inherit Achaea. Baldwin confirmed this and gave up his claims to rule his vassals to Charles. Charles promised to help Baldwin recapture Constantinople from the Byzantine emperor, Michael VIII Palaiologos. In return, he would get one-third of the conquered lands.
Charles returned to Tuscany and attacked a fortress, but it did not fall until November. Meanwhile, Manfred's strongest supporters had fled to Bavaria. They tried to convince Conrad IV's 15-year-old son, Conradin, to claim his right to the Kingdom of Sicily. Conradin agreed. Manfred's former leader in Sicily, Conrad Capece, returned to the island and started a revolt. At Capece's request, the ruler of Tunis allowed Manfred's former ally to invade Sicily. His brother, Henry, who was senator of Rome, also supported Conradin. Henry had been Charles's friend, but Charles had not repaid a loan to him.
Conradin left Bavaria in September 1267. His supporters' revolt spread from Sicily to Calabria. The Muslims of Lucera also rebelled. Pope Clement urged Charles to return to the Regno. But Charles continued his campaign in Tuscany until March 1268, when he met the Pope. In April, the Pope made Charles the imperial ruler of Tuscany. Charles marched to southern Italy and attacked Lucera. But he then had to rush north to stop Conradin's invasion in late August. At the Battle of Tagliacozzo, on August 23, 1268, it seemed Conradin had won. But a sudden charge by Charles's reserve troops defeated Conradin's army.
Citizens in towns like Potenza and Aversa killed those who supported Conradin. But the Sicilians and the Muslims of Lucera did not surrender. Charles marched to Rome, where he was again elected senator in September. He appointed new officials to manage justice and collect money. New coins with his name were made. For the next ten years, Rome was ruled by Charles's representatives.
Conradin was captured. Most of his followers were quickly killed. But Conradin and his friend were put on trial in Naples. They were sentenced to death and beheaded on October 29. Only one of Conradin's supporters was released. The nobles who supported the imperial family in the Regno fled to the court of Peter III of Aragon. Peter had married Manfred's daughter, Constance.
A Mediterranean Empire
Italy and Beyond
Charles's first wife, Beatrice of Provence, died in July 1267. Charles then married Margaret of Nevers in November 1268. She was an heir to her father. Pope Clement died on November 29, 1268. The Pope's position was empty for three years. This made Charles's power in Italy stronger. But it also meant he lacked the Church's support.
Charles returned to Lucera in April 1269 to lead the attack himself. The Muslims and imperial supporters in the town resisted until hunger forced them to surrender in August 1269. Charles sent his son Philip and another commander to Sicily to make the rebels surrender. But they could only capture one town. Charles sent a new commander to Sicily in August 1269. This commander captured another town, forcing some leaders to flee to Tunis. After another victory, only one rebel leader remained, but he also surrendered in early 1270.
Charles's troops forced Siena and Pisa, the last towns to resist him in Tuscany, to make peace in August 1270. He gave special rights to Tuscan merchants and bankers. This made them stronger in his kingdom. His influence in Lombardy was decreasing. The Lombard towns no longer feared an invasion from Germany after Conradin's death. Charles sent a representative to Lombardy in May 1269, but it did not strengthen his power. In October, Charles's officials called a meeting in Cremona. They invited the Lombard towns to attend. Some towns confirmed their alliance with Charles but did not accept his rule.
Eighth Crusade
Louis IX never gave up on freeing Jerusalem. But he decided to start his new crusade by attacking Tunis. Some believed Louis thought the ruler of Tunis was ready to become Christian. Others said Charles convinced Louis to attack Tunis. Charles wanted to make sure the rulers of Tunis kept paying tribute to the former Sicilian kings.
The French crusaders sailed on July 2, 1270. Charles left Naples six days later. He spent over a month in Sicily, waiting for his fleet. By the time he landed in Tunis on August 25, diseases had greatly reduced the French army. Louis died the day Charles arrived.
The crusaders defeated the ruler of Tunis twice. This forced him to ask for peace. The peace treaty was signed on November 1. The ruler of Tunis agreed to pay Louis' son, Philip III of France, and Charles for the war costs. He also agreed to release Christian prisoners. He promised to pay Charles a yearly tribute and to expel Charles's enemies from Tunis. The gold from Tunis, along with silver from a new mine, allowed Charles to make new coins in his kingdom.
Charles and Philip left Tunis on November 10. A storm scattered their fleet at Trapani. Most of Charles's ships were lost or damaged. Genoese ships returning from the crusade were also sunk or forced to land in Sicily. Charles seized the damaged ships and their cargo. He ignored all protests from Genoa. Before leaving Sicily, he gave temporary tax breaks to the Sicilians. He knew the conquest had caused much damage.
Attempts to Expand
Charles went with Philip III as far as Viterbo in March 1271. There, they failed to convince the cardinals to elect a new pope. Charles's brother, Alphonse of Poitiers, became ill. Charles sent his best doctors, but Alphonse died. Charles claimed most of Alphonse's inheritance, including Provence and Poitiers. He said he was Alphonse's closest relative. Philip III disagreed, so Charles took the case to the French court. In 1284, the court ruled that these lands returned to the French crown if their rulers died without children.
An earthquake damaged the walls of Durazzo around 1270. Charles's troops took the town with help from Albanian leaders. Charles made an agreement with the Albanian chiefs in February 1272. He promised to protect them and their old freedoms. He took the title of King of Albania and appointed a governor. He also sent his fleet to Achaea to defend it from Byzantine attacks.
Charles hurried to Rome for the crowning of Pope Gregory X on March 27, 1272. The new pope wanted to end the conflicts between the Guelphs (Pope's supporters) and Ghibellines (Emperor's supporters). In Rome, Charles met with Guelph leaders exiled from Genoa. They offered him the position of captain of the people. Charles promised them military help. In November 1272, Charles ordered his officials to arrest all Genoese in his lands, except the Guelphs, and seize their property. His fleet took over an island. Pope Gregory criticized his aggressive policy. But he suggested the Genoese elect Guelph officials. Ignoring the Pope, the Genoese made an alliance with other rulers in October 1273.
The conflict with Genoa stopped Charles from invading the Byzantine Empire. But he continued to make alliances in the Balkans. The Bulgarian ruler was the first to make a treaty with him in 1272 or 1273. Other rulers joined in 1273. However, Pope Gregory forbade Charles to attack. The Pope hoped to unite the Orthodox and Catholic churches with the help of Emperor Michael VIII.
The famous theologian Thomas Aquinas died unexpectedly near Naples on March 7, 1274. He was on his way to attend a council. Some legends say Charles poisoned him, fearing Aquinas would complain about him. But historians say there is no proof his death was not natural. Southern Italian churchmen at the council accused Charles of being a tyrant. Their report strengthened the Pope's efforts to make a deal with Rudolf of Habsburg, who was elected king of Germany. In June, the Pope recognized Rudolf as the rightful ruler of Germany and Italy. Charles's sisters-in-law claimed they were unfairly disinherited in favor of Charles's late wife.
Michael VIII's envoy announced at the Council of Lyon on July 6 that he accepted the Catholic faith and the Pope's authority. About three weeks later, Pope Gregory again told Charles not to attack the Byzantine Empire. The Pope also tried to arrange a truce between Charles and Michael. But Michael chose to attack smaller states in the Balkans, including Charles's vassals. The Byzantine fleet controlled the sea routes between Albania and southern Italy in the late 1270s. Gregory only allowed Charles to send help to Achaea. The Pope's main goal was to organize a new crusade to the Holy Land. He convinced Charles to buy a claim to the Kingdom of Jerusalem.
The war with Genoa and the Lombard towns took up more and more of Charles's time. He appointed his nephew as his deputy in Piedmont in October 1274. But his nephew could not stop some towns from joining the Ghibelline League. The next summer, a Genoese fleet attacked Sicily. Convinced that only Rudolf I could make peace, the Pope urged the Lombard towns to send envoys to him. He also urged Charles to give up Tuscany. In autumn 1275, the Ghibellines offered peace to Charles, but he did not accept their terms. Early the next year, the Ghibellines defeated his troops, forcing them to retreat to Provence.
Papal Elections
Pope Gregory X died on January 10, 1276. Charles had faced hostility during Gregory's time as Pope. So, Charles was determined to get a pope elected who would support his plans. Gregory's successor, Pope Innocent V, had always supported Charles. He quickly confirmed Charles as senator of Rome and ruler of Tuscany. He also helped make a peace treaty between Charles and Genoa, signed on June 22, 1276. Charles restored the Genoese merchants' rights and gave up his conquests. The Genoese accepted his rule in Ventimiglia.
Pope Innocent died on June 30, 1276. After the cardinals met, Charles's troops surrounded the building. This allowed only his allies to talk with other cardinals and outsiders. On July 11, the cardinals elected Charles's old friend as pope. But he died on August 18. The cardinals met again, this time in Viterbo. Charles was nearby, but he could not directly influence the election. His strong opponent, Cardinal Giovanni Gaetano Orsini, controlled the election. Pope John XXI, elected on September 20, punished Charles's opponents in Piedmont. He also stopped Rudolf from coming to Lombardy. But he did not forbid Lombardian Guelph leaders from swearing loyalty to Rudolf. The Pope also confirmed a treaty between Charles and Maria of Antioch. This treaty transferred her claims to Jerusalem to Charles for money and a pension.
Charles appointed Roger of San Severino to govern the Kingdom of Jerusalem. San Severino landed in Acre on June 7, 1277. The current governor surrendered the town without a fight. At first, only some knights and Venetians recognized Charles as the ruler. But the nobles of the kingdom also paid homage to San Severino in January 1278. This happened after he threatened to take their lands. The Mamluks of Egypt had already limited the kingdom to a small coastal area. Charles had ordered San Severino to avoid conflicts with Egypt.
Pope John died on May 20, 1277. Charles was ill and could not stop Giovanni Gaetano Orsini from being elected Pope Nicholas III on November 25. The Pope soon declared that no foreign prince could rule in Rome. He reminded Charles that he had been elected senator for ten years. Charles swore loyalty to the new pope on May 24, 1278, after long talks. He had to promise to give up his positions in Rome and Tuscany in four months. On the other hand, Nicholas III confirmed the punishment of Charles's enemies in Piedmont. He also started talks with Rudolf to stop him from forming an alliance against Charles.
Charles announced he was stepping down from his positions on August 30, 1278. He was replaced by the Pope's brother in Rome and the Pope's nephew in Tuscany. To make sure Charles fully gave up his goals in central Italy, the Pope started talks with Rudolf. They discussed restoring the Kingdom of Arles for Charles's grandson. Charles's sisters-in-law strongly opposed this plan. But Philip III of France did not support his mother. After long talks, Rudolf recognized Charles as the rightful ruler of Provence in summer 1279. An agreement about Charles Martel's rule in Arles and his marriage was signed in May 1280. This plan worried rulers in the Upper Rhone region.
Charles had inherited the Principality of Achaea from William II of Villehardouin, who died on May 1, 1278. He appointed an unpopular official as his governor in Achaea. This governor could not pay his troops, who started to rob peasants. The Duke of Athens had to lend him money for salaries. Another ruler accepted Charles's authority on March 14, 1279, to get his help against the Byzantines. He also gave three towns to Charles.
Pope Nicholas died on August 22, 1280. Charles sent agents to Viterbo to help elect one of his supporters. He took advantage of disagreements among the late Pope's relatives and other cardinals. When a riot broke out in Viterbo, Charles's troops took control of the town. On February 22, 1281, his strongest supporter was elected pope. Pope Martin IV removed his predecessor's relatives and made Charles senator of Rome again. A rebellion started against the Pope, but Charles's troops stopped it. Charles also sent an army to Piedmont, but it was defeated in May.
End of Church Unity
Pope Martin punished Emperor Michael VIII on April 10, 1281. This was because the Emperor had not forced church unity in his empire. The Pope soon allowed Charles to invade the empire. Charles's governor in Albania had already attacked a Byzantine fortress. A Byzantine relief army arrived in March 1281. The governor was captured, his army fled, and Albania's interior was lost to the Byzantines. On July 3, 1281, Charles and his son-in-law made an alliance with Venice. This was "for the restoration of the Roman Empire." They decided to start a full war early the next year.
Margaret of Provence called a meeting of lords in autumn 1281. They held lands in the Kingdom of Arles. They wanted to unite their troops to stop Charles's army from taking the kingdom. But Philip III of France strongly opposed his mother's plan. And Edward I of England would not promise them any help. Charles agreed that his wife held her inherited lands as a Burgundian fief. This calmed the Duke of Burgundy. Charles's ships began to gather in Marseilles to sail up the Rhone in spring 1282. Another fleet was gathering in Messina to start the crusade against the Byzantine Empire.
The Empire's Fall
Sicilian Vespers
Charles always needed money. He could not cancel a very unpopular tax, even though it was the most disliked in his kingdom. Instead, he gave tax breaks to some people and groups, especially French and Provençal settlers. This made the burden heavier on those who did not have such privileges. The yearly forced exchange of coins was also an important, and unpopular, way for the king to get money. Charles took forced loans whenever he needed "a large sum of money for urgent business," as he explained in one of his orders.
Forced supplies, like taking goods, made Charles's government even more unpopular in southern Italy and Sicily. His people also had to guard prisoners or house soldiers. Fixing old fortresses, bridges, and aqueducts, and building new castles, required workers. Most of them did not want to work on such long projects. Thousands of people were forced to serve in the army in foreign lands, especially after 1279. Trading salt became a royal monopoly. In December 1281, Charles again ordered the collection of the unpopular tax, asking for 150 percent of the usual amount.
Charles did not pay much attention to the island of Sicily. It had been a center of resistance against him in 1268. He moved the capital from Palermo to Naples. He did not visit the island after 1271. This stopped Sicilians from telling him directly about their problems. Sicilian nobles were rarely hired as royal officials. But he often appointed southern Italian nobles to represent him in his other lands. Also, after taking large estates on the island in the late 1260s, Charles almost only hired French and Provençal churchmen to manage them.
Popular stories said that John of Procida, Manfred of Sicily's former chancellor, planned a secret plot against Charles. Legend says he visited Constantinople, Sicily, and Viterbo in disguise in 1279 and 1280. He supposedly convinced Michael VIII, the Sicilian nobles, and Pope Nicholas III to support a revolt. On the other hand, Michael VIII later claimed he "was God's instrument in bringing freedom to the Sicilians." The Emperor's wealth allowed him to send money to the unhappy Sicilian nobles. Peter III of Aragon decided to claim the Kingdom of Sicily in late 1280. He did not hide his dislike when he met Charles's son, Charles, Duke of Salerno, in December 1280. Peter began to gather a fleet, pretending it was for another crusade to Tunis.
A riot broke out in Sicily after a citizen of Palermo killed a French soldier. The soldier had insulted his wife on Easter Monday (March 30), 1282. When the soldier's friends attacked the killer, the crowd turned against them. They started to kill all the French in the town. This riot, known as the Sicilian Vespers, grew into a full uprising. Most of Charles's officials were killed or forced to flee the island. Charles ordered soldiers and ships from Achaea to Sicily. But he could not stop the revolt from spreading to Calabria. San Severino also had to return to Italy, taking most of the soldiers from Acre. The new commander in Acre had limited power.
The citizens of the main Sicilian towns formed their own governments. They sent representatives to Pope Martin, asking him to protect them. Instead, the Pope punished the rebels on May 7. Charles issued an order on June 10. He blamed his officials for ignoring his rules on good government. But he did not promise big changes. In July, he sailed to Sicily and attacked Messina.
War with Aragon
Peter III of Aragon's envoy started talks with the rebel leaders in Palermo. Realizing they could not resist without foreign help, they accepted Peter and Constance as their king and queen. They sent envoys to meet Peter's fleet. After a short thought, Peter decided to help the rebels. He sailed to Sicily. He was declared king of Sicily in Palermo on September 4. After this, two kingdoms, each with a ruler called king (or queen) of Sicily, existed for over a century. Charles and his successors ruled southern Italy (the Kingdom of Naples). Peter and his descendants ruled the island of Sicily.
When the Aragonese landed, Charles had to retreat from the island. But the Aragonese moved quickly. They destroyed part of his army and most of his supplies. Peter took control of the whole island. He sent troops to Calabria. But they could not stop Charles of Salerno from leading 600 French knights to join his father. More French troops arrived in November. In the same month, the Pope punished Peter.
Neither Peter nor Charles could afford a long war. Charles made a surprising offer in late December 1282. He challenged Peter to a duel. Peter insisted the war should continue. But he agreed that a battle between the two kings, each with 100 knights, should decide who owned Sicily. The duel was set for Bordeaux on June 1, 1283. But they did not set a time. Charles appointed Charles of Salerno to rule the Regno while he was away. To ensure loyalty in Achaea, he appointed a local lord as governor. Pope Martin declared the war against the Sicilians a crusade on January 13, 1283. Charles met the Pope in Viterbo on March 9. But he ignored the Pope's ban on his duel with Peter of Aragon. After visiting Provence and Paris in April, he left for Bordeaux to meet Peter. The duel became a joke. Both kings arrived at different times on the same day. Each declared victory over their absent opponent and left.
Small fights and raids continued in southern Italy. Aragonese fighters attacked a town and killed a French noble in January 1283. The Aragonese took another town in February. The Sicilian admiral defeated a new French fleet in April. However, tensions grew between the Aragonese and Sicilians. In May 1283, a leader of the anti-Charles rebellion was executed for secretly talking with Charles's agents. Pope Martin declared the war against Aragon a crusade. He gave the kingdom to Philip III of France's son on February 2, 1284.
Charles began to raise new troops and a fleet in Provence. He told his son, Charles of Salerno, to stay on defense until he returned. The Sicilian admiral blocked Naples in May 1284. Charles of Salerno tried to destroy the squadron. But most of his fleet was captured, and he himself was taken prisoner after a short fight on June 5. News of this defeat caused a riot in Naples. But the Pope's representative stopped it with help from local nobles. Charles learned of the disaster when he landed on June 6. He was furious at Charles of Salerno for his disobedience. He supposedly said, "Who loses a fool loses nothing," referring to his son's capture.
Charles left Naples for Calabria on June 24, 1284. A large army went with him. He attacked the town by sea and land in late July. His fleet approached Sicily's coast, but his troops could not land. After the Sicilian admiral landed troops nearby, Charles had to stop the attack and retreat from Calabria on August 3.
Death
Charles went to Brindisi and prepared for a campaign against Sicily in the new year. He sent orders to his officials to collect the unpopular tax. However, he became seriously ill before traveling to Foggia on December 30. He made his last will on January 6, 1285. He appointed a regent for his grandson, who was to rule his lands until Charles of Salerno was released. He died on the morning of January 7. He was buried in a marble tomb in Naples. But his heart was placed in a church in Paris. His body was moved to a chapel in the newly built Naples Cathedral in 1296.
Family
| Louis VIII of France | Blanche of Castile | Ramon Berenguer IV of Provence | Beatrice of Savoy | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Robert I of Artois | Alphonse of Poitiers | Charles I of Anjou | Beatrice of Provence | Eleanor of Provence | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Louis IX of France | Margaret of Provence | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Robert II of Artois | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Philip III of France | Peter I of Alençon | Edward I of England | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Records show that Charles was a loyal husband and a caring father. His first wife, Beatrice of Provence, had at least six children. Some stories say she convinced Charles to claim the Kingdom of Sicily. She wanted to wear a crown like her sisters. Before she died in July 1267, she left Charles the right to use Provence's income.
- Blanche, Charles and Beatrice's oldest daughter, married in 1265 but died four years later.
- Beatrice, her younger sister, married the Latin emperor in 1273.
- Charles II, Charles's oldest son, was given the Principality of Salerno in 1272. Charles II and his wife, Maria of Hungary, had fourteen children. This ensured the family line continued.
- Philip, Charles and Beatrice's next son, was chosen as king of Sardinia in 1269. But he died without children in 1278.
- Robert, Charles's third son, died in 1265.
- Elisabeth, Charles's youngest daughter, married the future Ladislaus IV of Hungary in 1269.
Charles's first wife died. He then wanted to marry Margaret of Hungary. But Margaret, who grew up in a nunnery, did not want to marry. Legend says she hurt herself to prevent the marriage. Charles and his second wife, Margaret of Nevers, had several children. But none of them lived to adulthood.
Legacy
Historians' views on Charles have been influenced by two 13th-century writers. These writers were biased. One described Charles as a tyrant to justify the Sicilian revolt. The other argued against a crusade in 1285. Charles continued some policies of earlier rulers, like coinage and taxes. But his rule also brought French and Provençal influences. He gave lands in his kingdom to about 700 nobles from France or Provence. He did not wear the fancy robes of earlier Sicilian kings. He dressed like other Western European kings, or "a simple knight."
Around 1310, a historian said Charles was the most powerful Christian king in the late 1270s. A poet compared Charles directly to Charlemagne. These reports show Charles was seen almost as an emperor. Modern historians also agree he tried to build a large empire.
One historian concluded that Charles's rule "was too large to control." However, economic ties between his lands grew stronger during his reign. Salt from Provence was sent to his other lands. Grain from his kingdom was sold in other places. Merchants from Tuscany settled in his lands. His top officials were moved to represent him in different territories. French and Provençal nobles held high positions in his kingdom. Even though his empire fell apart before he died, his son kept southern Italy and Provence.
Charles always stressed his royal rank. But he did not use "imperial language." His famous judge developed a new political idea. Traditional thinkers believed only Holy Roman Emperors could make laws. But this judge said an emperor could not claim power over a king. He stressed Charles's full right to issue laws. To encourage legal education, Charles paid high salaries to law teachers at the University of Naples. Medical teachers also received good pay. The university became a main center for medical science. Charles's personal interest in medicine grew. He borrowed Arabic medical texts from the rulers of Tunis to have them translated. He hired at least one Jewish scholar who could translate texts from Arabic to Latin. A medical encyclopedia was one of the books translated for Charles.
Charles was also a poet, which made him different from his French relatives. He wrote love songs and a type of poetic debate. He was asked to judge two poetry contests when he was young. But modern scholars do not think his poetry was great. Provençal poets were mostly critical of Charles. But French poets praised him. One poet wrote against the salt tax. Another criticized Charles for invading his kingdom. A French poet dedicated an unfinished epic poem to Charles. Another glorified his victories. A famous writer described Charles singing peacefully with his former rival in Purgatory.
Charles also liked architecture. He designed a tower in Brindisi, but it soon fell down. He ordered the building of the Castel Nuovo in Naples. Only the chapel from his work remains. He is also credited with bringing French-style stained glass windows to southern Italy.
See also
In Spanish: Carlos de Anjou para niños
