Celtiberian Wars facts for kids
The First Celtiberian War (181–179 BC) and Second Celtiberian War (154–151 BC) were two big fights between the Celtiberians and the Romans in Hispania (modern-day Spain). The Celtiberians were a group of Celtic tribes living in the middle of Hispania.
After the Second Punic War ended, the Carthaginians lost their lands in Hispania to Rome. The Celtiberians lived next to these new Roman areas. They started clashing with the Roman army, which led to the First Celtiberian War. Rome won this war. A Roman leader named Gracchus then made peace deals with several tribes. This brought 24 years of calm.
In 154 BC, the Roman Senate got upset because the Belli tribe's town of Segeda was building strong walls. Rome declared war, starting the Second Celtiberian War (154–152 BC). Tribes like the Titti, Belli (from Segeda and Nertobriga), and Arevaci (from Numantia, Axinum, and Ocilis) were involved. After some early Celtiberian wins, a Roman leader named Marcus Claudius Marcellus defeated them and made peace. The next leader, Lucius Licinius Lucullus, then attacked the Vaccaei tribe, even though they were not fighting Rome. He did this without the Senate's permission. The Second Celtiberian War happened at the same time as the Lusitanian War (154–150 BC).
Later, the Numantine War (143–133 BC) was another major rebellion. Some people see it as the Third Celtiberian War.
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Why the Wars Started
Rome Takes Over Hispania
The Romans took control of the Carthaginians' lands in southern Hispania after beating them in the Battle of Ilipa in 206 BC. This happened during the Second Punic War (218–201 BC). After the war, Rome created two new provinces: Hispania Citerior (Nearer Spain) along the east coast and Hispania Ulterior (Further Spain) in the south.
For many years, various tribes in Hispania rebelled against Roman rule. These uprisings happened almost every year for 98 years, until the First Celtiberian War ended in 179 BC.
Early Clashes with Celtiberians
The Celtiberians soon began to fight Rome. In 197 BC, 20,000 Celtiberians attacked a Roman army. In 195 BC, 10,000 Celtiberians joined another tribe against Rome. A Roman army led by Cato the Elder was sent to Celtiberia, and the Celtiberians stopped fighting for a while.
But the fighting didn't end for long. In 193 BC, a group of Celtiberians, Vaccei, and Vettones were defeated by a Roman army. In 185 BC, another group of Hispanic tribes beat two Roman armies, but then lost another battle near the Tagus river.
In 182 BC, Quintus Fulvius Flaccus pushed deeper into Celtiberian lands. He captured the city of Urbicua. In response, the Celtiberians gathered a large army of 35,000 men.
The First Celtiberian War (181–179 BC)
Battle at Aebura (181 BC)
To face the 35,000 Celtiberian soldiers, Flaccus received more Roman and allied troops. He also got help from friendly local tribes. He marched to Carpetania and defeated the Celtiberian army near Aebura. About 23,000 Celtiberians died, and 4,700 were captured. The Romans then took the city. This battle showed that the Celtiberians were organized, fighting with both cavalry (horse soldiers) and infantry (foot soldiers).
Flaccus's Campaigns (180–179 BC)
After this victory, Quintus Fulvius Flaccus marched through Carpetania to the city of Contrebia. A Celtiberian army was sent to protect the city, but heavy rains delayed them. When they arrived, the city had already given up. The Romans surprised the Celtiberians as they left the city. Most escaped, but 12,000 Celtiberians died.
Quintus Fulvius continued through Celtiberian land, destroying farms and capturing many forts until the Celtiberians surrendered.
Because his replacement, Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, was late, Flaccus started a third campaign. He attacked the parts of Celtiberia where the Lusones tribe lived, as they had not surrendered. On his way back, Flaccus was ambushed at the Manlian Pass. He defeated the Celtiberians, killing 17,000 of them, but he also lost many of his own men. Flaccus then went to Tarraco to hand over command to Gracchus.
Gracchus's Campaigns (179 BC)
Gracchus marched into Celtiberia. He first captured the city of Munda. Then he attacked the strong town of Certima. The town asked for help from a Celtiberian army camp nearby. Gracchus showed off his entire army to the Celtiberian messengers, which made them decide not to send help. Munda surrendered, gave up young nobles as hostages, and paid a fine.
After Certima, Gracchus defeated the Celtiberians guarding the camp in Alce. He captured the city and convinced some important Celtiberian leaders to join Rome. Another Celtiberian city, Ergavica, opened its gates to the Romans. Gracchus also defeated 20,000 Celtiberians who were attacking Caravis, a Roman ally, and captured the city of Complega.
Some surrenders were not sincere, and fighting started again when Gracchus left. There was a big battle near Mons Chaunus, with many losses on both sides. Three days later, an even bigger battle happened, where 22,000 Celtiberians were killed. This final defeat was so big that it ended the fighting.
Peace and Aftermath
Gracchus signed a series of peace treaties with the Celtiberians. He spent time talking with tribal leaders and building good relationships. After Complega surrendered, he gave land to poor people and made clear agreements with the surrounding tribes, making them friends with Rome.
Gracchus also set up a new tax system, which was fairer than the old one. His treaties said that the allies had to provide troops for the Roman army. They also allowed the natives to make their existing cities stronger, but not to build new ones. He also brought in some civilian rules, like allowing mining rights to make coins and building roads. Gracchus also founded new Roman settlements like Gracchurris and Iliturgi.
Gracchus's plans and treaties brought peace to the area for the next 25 years. Except for a few small incidents, Hispania stayed calm until the Lusitanian War (155–150 BC) and the Second Celtiberian War (154–151 BC) began.
Second Celtiberian War (154–152 BC)
What Caused the War?
The war started because Segeda, a powerful city of the Belli tribe, was building very long walls (seven kilometers!). It also convinced smaller towns and the Titti tribe to join them. Rome believed Segeda was breaking the peace treaty that Gracchus had made. Rome told them to stop building the wall, pay taxes, and send soldiers for the Roman army, as the treaty said.
The people of Segeda argued that the treaty only stopped them from building new towns, not from making existing ones stronger. They also said Rome had later let them off from taxes and sending soldiers. This was true, but the Roman Senate said these breaks were only temporary. The Senate was worried about Segeda becoming too powerful, especially since the Celtiberians had rebelled before. So, Rome got ready for war.
Celtiberian Victories
In 153 BC, a Roman leader named Quintus Fulvius Nobilior arrived in Hispania with almost 30,000 soldiers. The people of Segeda, whose wall wasn't finished, ran away and found safety with the Arevaci tribe. The Arevaci welcomed them and chose a Segedan named Carus as their leader.
Carus set up an ambush with 20,000 foot soldiers and 500 horse soldiers in a thick forest. They attacked the Romans as they passed through. It was a long battle, and the Celtiberians won, killing 6,000 Romans. Carus was killed while chasing the fleeing Romans. This battle was a disaster for Rome. After this, Romans avoided fighting on the festival day of the god Vulcan.
The Arevaci gathered at the town of Numantia, which had strong natural defenses. Nobilior camped near the town. He was joined by 300 horse soldiers and ten elephants sent by Masinissa, a Roman ally. The Romans used the elephants to scare the enemy, who had never seen such animals. The Celtiberians ran back into their town.
Nobilior attacked Numantia's walls, and a fierce fight began. Then, a large stone hit an elephant, making a loud noise that scared the other elephants. They ran wild, trampling over the Romans, who fled in a panic. The Numantines rushed out and killed 4,000 Romans and three elephants.
Nobilior then attacked Axinium, where the enemy kept their supplies, but he failed and lost many men. He also lost a Roman commander and many troops in an ambush. These Roman defeats encouraged the town of Ocilis to join the Celtiberians. Nobilior had to retreat to his winter camp, where many of his men died from lack of food and severe cold.
In 152 BC, Marcus Claudius Marcellus took command, bringing 8,000 foot soldiers and 500 horse soldiers. He avoided an ambush and captured Ocilis, pardoning its people but taking hostages and a fine. His fair treatment encouraged Nertobriga (a Belli town) to ask for peace. Marcellus asked for 100 horse soldiers, and they agreed.
However, some people from Nertobriga attacked the Roman rear guard and stole goods. Marcellus chained the horsemen, sold their horses, and started to besiege the town. Nertobriga again asked for peace. Marcellus said he would only grant peace if the Arevaci, Belli, and Titti tribes asked for it together. Marcellus secretly wrote to the Senate, urging peace, as he wanted to end the war himself and gain glory.
Celtiberians Seek Peace
The Celtiberians sent messengers to Rome. The Belli and Titti, who had sided with Rome, were treated as guests. The Arevaci, who were enemies, had to stay outside the city. The friendly messengers told the Senate that if the rebels weren't punished, they would rebel again. They asked Rome to keep its army in Hispania or punish the Arevaci severely.
The Arevaci messengers sounded proud and unwilling to give up. They said they would pay a penalty if ordered, but they wanted to go back to the terms of Gracchus's old treaty. The Roman Senate felt that Marcellus was too soft on the enemy. They were also unhappy that the Celtiberians had refused Nobilior's earlier terms. The Senate told the messengers that Marcellus would tell them its decision.
Secretly, the Senate believed the allies were right and that Marcellus was afraid of the war. They decided to send a new leader to replace him and prepared for a big campaign. Rumors spread about heavy Roman losses and the bravery of the Celtiberians, making new recruits scared to join the army.
Then, a young man named Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus spoke in the Senate. He offered to go to Hispania as an officer, even though he had a safer job in Macedon. Everyone was surprised by his youth and courage. He became very popular and shamed those who were avoiding military service. Young men started signing up, and officers volunteered.
In 151 BC, the new Roman leader, Lucius Licinius Lucullus, was sent to Hispania. Before he arrived, Marcellus told the Celtiberians about the coming war and returned their hostages. He talked with the Celtiberian chief who had gone to Rome, trying to persuade the Celtiberians to make peace with him before Lucullus arrived.
After this, 5,000 Arevaci took over Nertobriga. Marcellus camped near Numantia. The Numantine leader asked to meet Marcellus and said the Arevaci, Belli, and Titti would surrender to him. Marcellus demanded and received hostages and money, then let them go free. So, Marcellus managed to end the war before Lucullus arrived.
Lucullus's Unfair War on the Vaccaei
Lucullus was eager for fame and money. He attacked the Vaccaei tribe, even though the Senate had not declared war on them, and they had never attacked Rome. He crossed the Tagus River and camped near Cauca. The people of Cauca asked why he was there. He claimed they had mistreated the Carpetani tribe and he had come to help.
The Caucaei attacked Roman soldiers who were gathering wood and food, killing many. In a battle, the Caucaei fought well at first, but when they ran out of spears, they fled. 3,000 of them were killed. The town elders asked for peace. Lucullus demanded hostages, money, and soldiers for his army. When they agreed, he also demanded that Roman soldiers be allowed to guard the town.
The Caucaei agreed, and Lucullus sent 2,000 chosen soldiers to take the city. Then, the rest of the Roman army was let in with orders to kill all adult men. Only a few out of 20,000 managed to escape. They burned what they couldn't take to prevent Lucullus from getting any treasure.
Lucullus then marched to Itercatia, where many people had taken shelter. He called for peace talks. The people of Itercatia criticized him for the terrible killing at Cauca. Lucullus, angry, destroyed their fields. He then began a siege. A brave enemy soldier challenged a Roman to a one-on-one fight. The young Scipio Aemilianus accepted and defeated the bigger man, which cheered up the Romans.
However, the Romans suffered from lack of sleep and sickness from the local food. Many died. When the Romans broke down a part of the city walls, they were quickly pushed back and many fell into a reservoir and died. The enemy repaired the wall. Both sides were running out of food. Scipio Aemilianus suggested peace, promising it would not be broken. The Itercalati trusted him and gave Lucullus cloaks, cattle, and hostages.
Next, Lucullus went to Pallantia. He was advised to avoid this town because it was known for its brave fighters, but he heard it was rich. He camped there, but the Pallantian horse soldiers constantly attacked his food gatherers, making it impossible to get supplies. The Romans had to retreat and were chased by the enemy. Lucullus then went to the land of the Turdetani for winter. This was the end of his unfair war against the Vaccaei. He was never punished for it.
Lucullus had hoped to find lots of gold and silver, but he found none. The local tribes didn't even value these metals.
Lucullus also worked with Servius Sulpicius Galba to fight the Lusitanians. They gradually emptied the land of people. Galba was even greedier than Lucullus and killed many Lusitanians through trickery.
What Happened Next?
In 147 BC, four years after the Second Celtiberian War ended, the Lusitanians rebelled again in the Viriathic War (147–139 BC). In 144 BC, Viriatus, the Lusitanian leader, encouraged the Celtiberians to rebel. This led to the Numantine War (143–133 BC), which was the longest war of resistance against the Romans.
See also
In Spanish: Guerras celtíberas para niños
