Ahmad ibn Abi Du'ad facts for kids

Ahmad ibn Abi Du'ad (born around 776 or 777, died June 854) was an important Islamic judge during the 800s. He was a follower of a school of thought called Mu'tazilism. In 833, he became the chief judge of the Abbasid Caliphate, a large Islamic empire. He became very powerful during the rule of Caliphs al-Mu'tasim and al-Wathiq.

As chief judge, he worked to make Mu'tazilism the official belief of the state. He also led a special religious test called the mihnah. This test made sure that officials and scholars followed Mu'tazilite ideas. In 848, Ibn Abi Du'ad had a stroke. His son, Muhammad, took over his role. However, his family's power decreased when Caliph al-Mutawakkil came to power. This new caliph slowly ended Mu'tazilism and stopped the mihnah.

Ibn Abi Du'ad was one of the most senior officials. His influence was compared to the powerful Barmakids family. He was seen as a key leader of Mu'tazilism and a main person behind the mihnah. He questioned many traditional scholars, like the famous Ahmad ibn Hanbal. Because of this, his reputation suffered after his death. Later writers often spoke badly about him.

Early Life and Studies

Ahmad ibn Abi Du'ad was born in Basra in 776 or 777. His family was Arab and came from a village in Syria. They belonged to the Iyad tribe.

When he was young, he moved to Damascus with his father. He spent his youth studying Islamic law (fiqh) and religious ideas (kalam). His teacher, Hayyaj ibn al-'Ala' al-Sulami, had studied with Wasil ibn 'Ata'. Wasil ibn 'Ata' was the founder of Mu'tazilism. Under his teacher's guidance, Ibn Abi Du'ad became a strong supporter of Mu'tazilite beliefs.

After finishing his studies, Ibn Abi Du'ad started working with Yahya ibn Aktham. Yahya was the chief judge under Caliph al-Ma'mun (who ruled from 813 to 833). Ibn Abi Du'ad met al-Ma'mun early on and quickly gained his favor. Al-Ma'mun also liked Mu'tazilism. He saw it as a balanced path for religious matters. In 827, al-Ma'mun announced his belief that the Qur'an was created. This was a main Mu'tazilite idea. By the end of al-Ma'mun's rule in 833, Ibn Abi Du'ad was a close friend of the caliph. On his deathbed, al-Ma'mun told his brother and future ruler, al-Mu'tasim, to include Ibn Abi Du'ad in his advisors.

Chief Judge Under Al-Mu'tasim

When al-Mu'tasim became caliph, he followed his brother's advice. He made Ibn Abi Du'ad the chief judge, replacing Yahya ibn Aktham. During al-Mu'tasim's rule (833–842), Ibn Abi Du'ad had huge political and financial power. People said the caliph relied completely on his advice. He became one of the most important officials in the state. However, he had a main rival, the vizier Muhammad ibn al-Zayyat.

Map showing prominent cities where the mihnah took place

During al-Mu'tasim's time, Mu'tazilism stayed the official state belief. Even though the caliph might not have been as passionate about it as al-Ma'mun, he continued the religious policies. This was likely due to Ibn Abi Du'ad's influence. To make sure everyone followed the idea of the created Qur'an, the chief judge continued the mihnah. This religious test was started by al-Ma'mun just before he died. It required officials, judges, and scholars to be tested on their beliefs about the Qur'an. If someone refused to agree that it was created, they could lose their job, be arrested, or face harsh treatment. One famous person who was tested during this time was Ahmad ibn Hanbal. He was the founder of the Hanbali school of law. Ibn Abi Du'ad questioned him, and he was whipped for sticking to his traditional beliefs. Ibn Abi Du'ad also appointed many judges who shared his views. These judges then carried out the mihnah in their own areas.

Beyond the mihnah, Ibn Abi Du'ad also gained a reputation for being fair and kind. He often stepped in to help people who had angered al-Mu'tasim. He also helped people get favors from the caliph. He played a key role in the government's money matters. For example, his staff managed the sharing of treasures after the Amorium campaign in 838. He also supported a large irrigation project in Khurasan. After a big fire in Baghdad, he convinced the caliph to let him give out five million dirhams to help the citizens. Ibn Abi Du'ad also moved to the new capital of Samarra in 836. There, he received land in the city center. In 840, he oversaw the trial of the general al-Afshin, who was accused of heresy.

Under Al-Wathiq

Ibn Abi Du'ad remained powerful under al-Mu'tasim's son, Caliph al-Wathiq (who ruled from 842 to 847). Al-Wathiq also believed the Qur'an was created. For most of al-Mu'tasim's rule, the mihnah was not very strict. But Ibn Abi Du'ad and his allied judges had increased their activities in the last year of al-Mu'tasim's life.

When al-Wathiq became caliph, he ordered the mihnah to become stricter. He gave his approval for its supporters to act with more force. At the start of al-Wathiq's rule, Ibn Abi Du'ad appointed new judges in Baghdad who supported the mihnah. In the provinces, there was a clear increase in actions against those who disagreed. In 845, the mihnah even reached Muslim prisoners held by the Byzantines. Ibn Abi Du'ad sent someone to test their beliefs about the Qur'an. Only those who agreed with the created Qur'an idea were freed. Those who did not were left in Byzantine custody.

Al-Wathiq's continued support for the created Qur'an idea led to a backlash from traditionalists. This led to a planned revolt in Baghdad in 846. However, the plot was discovered early. Its leader, Ahmad ibn Nasr al-Khuza'i, was arrested and sent to al-Wathiq in Samarra. He was questioned about his beliefs on the Qur'an. Ahmad's answers made al-Wathiq very angry. Even though Ibn Abi Du'ad was hesitant to have him killed, the caliph and his soldiers personally executed the prisoner. Ahmad's public death made people in Baghdad even more upset about the caliph's religious policy. Ahmad quickly became a hero for supporters of traditional beliefs.

Under al-Wathiq, the rivalry between Ibn Abi Du'ad and the vizier Ibn al-Zayyat continued. In 843-4, there was a general crackdown on government officials. Ibn al-Zayyat took action against the chief judge and other court officials. They were investigated and put in prison. Their cases were handled by Ishaq ibn Ibrahim al-Mus'abi. They were publicly displayed and treated harshly.

Downfall and Death

After al-Wathiq died in 847, Ibn Abi Du'ad formed a council with Ibn al-Zayyat and other senior officials. They needed to decide who would be the next caliph. They finally chose al-Wathiq's brother, Ja'far. Ibn Abi Du'ad gave him the regnal title of al-Mutawakkil. Ja'far then became the caliph.

Al-Mutawakkil's rule (847–861) was very different from the policies of al-Mu'tasim and al-Wathiq. The new caliph wanted to remove the officials who had been powerful under his two predecessors. In his first years, he managed to kill or remove most of these men. This included Ibn al-Zayyat and the chamberlain Itakh. Al-Mutawakkil also decided to change the religious policies. He wanted to stop the debate about whether the Qur'an was created or not. He was not a strong supporter of traditionalists, but he slowly moved away from Mu'tazilism. He stopped the mihnah, ending the official religious policy that had been in place since 833.

The new caliph did not act against Ibn Abi Du'ad at first. Ibn Abi Du'ad continued to appoint judges in different cities. However, less than a year after al-Mutawakkil became caliph, the chief judge suffered a stroke. This left him partly paralyzed. His son, Muhammad, had to take over his duties. Muhammad was not as influential as his father. The family's standing declined as al-Mutawakkil took steps against the Mu'tazilites. He removed many of Ibn Abi Du'ad's judges from office. He also ordered an end to all debates about the Qur'an.

In late 851, al-Mutawakkil decided to completely remove Ibn Abi Du'ad from power. He also took away Muhammad's positions in the courts. He ordered that the properties of Ibn Abi Du'ad and his family be taken and sold. Muhammad and his brothers were put in prison. At the same time, the caliph worked to finally end the mihnah. Yahya ibn Aktham was re-appointed as chief judge, replacing Ibn Abi Du'ad. Several more of Ibn Abi Du'ad's judges were dismissed. The caliph also tried to make peace with Ahmad ibn Hanbal. He removed Ahmad ibn Nasr's body from public display. Finally, in March 852, he ordered that all prisoners held because of the mihnah be released. This largely brought an end to the mihnah period.

Ibn Abi Du'ad lived for only three more years after losing his position as chief judge. He died in June 854, twenty days after his son Muhammad passed away.

Legacy and Views

After Mu'tazilism lost its political power and traditional beliefs won, Ibn Abi Du'ad was criticized. People disliked his religious ideas and his role in the mihnah. Writers who supported traditional Islam often showed their dislike for him. They judged his time in office very harshly. His trial and the whipping of Ahmad ibn Hanbal in 834-5, where Ibn Abi Du'ad played a big part, were especially condemned. Ahmad himself reportedly called Ibn Abi Du'ad a "disbeliever" and "the most ignorant of people in knowledge and theology." Later writings showed Ahmad as a hero defending traditional beliefs against an ignorant person. People connected to Ibn Abi Du'ad also sometimes faced unfair treatment after his death. For example, Caliph al-Mu'tazz (who ruled 866–869) canceled the appointments of eight judges. He sent them away to Baghdad when he learned they had been followers of Ibn Abi Du'ad.

While criticized for his religious policies, Ibn Abi Du'ad was also praised for being tolerant and kind. He was also known for his learning and generosity. Many stories show him as a person who sought compromise and was generous. He often stepped in to solve arguments between caliphs and their opponents. He tried to prevent violence. He was also known as a good poet. He supported many poets and writers. He was especially close to the Mu'tazilite writer al-Jahiz. Al-Jahiz even dedicated one of his books to him. He also gave Ibn Abi Du'ad religious arguments to use against traditionalists.

More recently, some modern scholars believe that Ibn Abi Du'ad's role in the mihnah might have been exaggerated. Tayeb el-Hibri thought that as traditional beliefs returned, writers were less likely to talk about the caliphs' role in the mihnah. Instead, they made the caliphs seem like unwilling supporters or even opponents of Mu'tazilism. The blame for the mihnah was then shifted to Ibn Abi Du'ad. Muhammad Qasim Zaman also saw Ibn Abi Du'ad as a "much criticized figure" in traditional writings. He believed that the idea of al-Mu'tasim and al-Wathiq only half-heartedly continuing the policies was a story pushed by traditionalists. They wanted to make the mihnah seem wrong. By making the mihnah the work of a lower official, not the caliphs, supporters of traditional beliefs hoped to show the affair was morally bankrupt. They also wanted to lessen the caliphs' responsibility.

See Also

• Muʿtazila
• Mihna
• Abbasid Caliphate

Images for kids

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  Map showing prominent cities where the mihnah took place