Roman–Parthian War of 58–63 facts for kids

Quick facts for kids Roman–Parthian War of 58–63
Part of the Roman–Parthian Wars
Date 58–63 AD Location Armenia Result Stalemate Treaty of Rhandeia Arsacids established on Armenian throne Territorial changes Minor gains for the Roman client states
Belligerents
Roman Empire Roman clients • Sophene • Lesser Armenia • Iberia • Commagene • Pontus	Kingdom of Armenia Parthian Empire
Commanders and leaders
Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo Tigranes VI of Armenia Lucius Caesennius Paetus	Tiridates I of Armenia Vologases I of Parthia
Units involved
30,000 legionaries (6 legions)	18,000 cavalry
Casualties and losses
11,000 dead or surrender	12,000 dead

The Roman–Parthian War of 58–63 was a fight between the powerful Roman Empire and the Parthian Empire. They were battling for control of Armenia. Armenia was a very important "buffer state," meaning it was a neutral area between the two big empires.

Armenia had been a Roman "client state" for a long time. This meant it was an independent country but was strongly influenced and protected by Rome. However, in 52 or 53 AD, the Parthians put their own chosen leader, Tiridates, on the Armenian throne.

This happened when Nero became the new Roman emperor. Young Nero decided to act strongly. The war was the only major foreign fight during his time as emperor. It started well for the Romans, led by their skilled general, Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo. They defeated Tiridates' forces and put their own choice, Tigranes VI, on the throne.

The Romans were helped because the Parthian king, Vologases, was busy dealing with rebellions in his own country. But once he handled those, the Parthians turned their attention back to Armenia. After a few years of fighting, they badly defeated the Romans at the Battle of Rhandeia.

The war ended soon after in a "stalemate," which means neither side truly won. They reached a formal agreement: a Parthian prince would rule Armenia, but the Roman emperor had to approve him. This war was the first direct fight between Parthia and Rome in about 100 years. It was also the start of many more wars between Rome and later Iranian empires over Armenia.

Why the War Started

For a long time, the growing Roman Republic and the Parthian Empire had disagreements. They both wanted control over the lands between them. The most important of these lands was the Kingdom of Armenia.

Around 20 BC, Emperor Augustus made Armenia a Roman "protectorate." This meant Rome protected Armenia and had a say in its rulers. Roman influence lasted until 37 AD. Then, a Parthian-backed ruler, Orodes, took the throne.

The Roman-backed king, Mithridates, got his throne back in 42 AD with Emperor Claudius's help. But in 51 AD, his nephew, Rhadamistus, took over. Rhadamistus was not popular with the people. This gave the new Parthian king, Vologases I of Parthia, a chance to step in.

Vologases' forces quickly captured Armenia's two main cities, Artaxata and Tigranocerta. He put his younger brother, Tiridates, on the throne. However, a harsh winter and a disease forced the Parthians to leave. Rhadamistus took control again. But his rule was even worse, and the people rebelled. So, in 54 AD, Rhadamistus fled, and Tiridates became king of Armenia again.

In the same year, Emperor Claudius died in Rome, and his stepson Nero became emperor. The Roman leaders were worried about the Parthians taking over Armenia. They saw it as a big test for the new emperor. Nero reacted strongly. He put Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo, a skilled general, in charge of the Roman forces in the East.

Roman Preparations

Armenia and the Roman East around 50 AD, before the war began.

General Corbulo was given control of two Roman provinces, Cappadocia and Galatia (which is now central Turkey). He had special authority over these areas. Galatia was good for finding new soldiers. Cappadocia had some "auxiliaries," which were soldiers from allied groups.

Most of Corbulo's army came from Syria. Half of the four Roman "legions" (large groups of soldiers) stationed there were sent to him. He also got many auxiliary units.

At first, the Romans hoped to solve the problem without fighting. Corbulo and the governor of Syria sent messages to King Vologases. They suggested he send "hostages" (important people held as a promise) to show he was serious about peace. Vologases was busy with a rebellion by his son, so he agreed.

There was a quiet period, and the Armenian issue remained unsettled. Corbulo used this time to train his soldiers. Their discipline had become weak from being in peaceful areas. According to the historian Tacitus, Corbulo sent away old or sick soldiers. He made the army live in tents during the harsh winters of the Anatolian plateau. This helped them get used to the cold Armenian snow. He also made sure discipline was strict, even punishing deserters with death. But he also made sure to be with his men and share their difficulties.

Meanwhile, Tiridates, supported by his brother, refused to go to Rome. He even attacked Armenians who were loyal to Rome. Tensions grew, and in early 58 AD, the war began.

Roman Offensive

Corbulo had placed many of his auxiliary troops in forts near the Armenian border. One commander, Paccius Orfitus, disobeyed orders. He used some new cavalry (horse soldiers) to raid the Armenians. But his raid failed, and his retreating troops caused panic among other forts. This was a bad start, and Corbulo punished the survivors and their leaders severely.

Corbulo had trained his army for two years and was ready. He had three Roman legions: the Third Gallica, the Sixth Ferrata, and the Fourth Scythica. He also had many auxiliaries and soldiers from allied kings. The situation was good for the Romans because King Vologases of Parthia was dealing with a big rebellion. He also faced attacks from nomads, so he could not help his brother Tiridates.

The war began with small fights along the border. Corbulo tried to protect Armenian towns loyal to Rome. He also attacked those who supported the Parthians. Tiridates avoided a big battle. So, Corbulo split his forces to attack several places at once. He also told his allies, the kings of Commagene and Iberia, to raid Armenia from their lands. They also made an alliance with the Moschoi tribe in northwestern Armenia.

Tiridates sent messengers to ask why he was being attacked, since hostages had been given. Corbulo repeated that Tiridates must get his crown approved by Nero in Rome. Eventually, they agreed to meet. Tiridates said he would bring 1,000 men, and Corbulo should bring the same number, "without armor." Tacitus thought Tiridates planned to trick the Romans. But Corbulo brought most of his army, showing his strength. Tiridates saw the Romans ready for battle and left during the night.

Tiridates then tried to cut off the Roman army's supplies. The Roman supply route went over mountains to Trapezus on the Black Sea. But the Romans had secured the mountain routes with forts, so Tiridates' plan failed.

Fall of Artaxata

Roman attacks and conquest of Armenia in the first two years of the war.

Corbulo decided to attack Tiridates' strongholds directly. These forts helped control the land and provided soldiers and money. Attacking them might force Tiridates into a big battle. Corbulo's forces quickly captured three forts, including Volandum, which was very strong. They did this in one day with few losses and killed the soldiers defending them.

Many towns and villages surrendered after seeing Rome's power. The Romans then prepared to attack Artaxata, the northern capital of Armenia. This forced Tiridates to face the Romans with his army. The Roman army marched in a square shape, with legions supported by horsemen and archers. The Roman soldiers were ordered to stay in formation. Even with repeated attacks from Parthian horse archers, they held their ground until night. During the night, Tiridates left his army and abandoned his capital. The people of Artaxata surrendered and were allowed to leave. But the Romans burned the city because they could not spare enough soldiers to guard it.

Fall of Tigranocerta

In 59 AD, the Romans marched south to Tigranocerta, Armenia's second capital. On their way, Corbulo's men punished those who resisted or hid. They were kind to those who surrendered. In the dry lands of northern Mesopotamia, the army suffered from lack of food and water. They finally reached the richer areas near Tigranocerta. During this time, a plan to kill Corbulo was discovered and stopped. Several Armenian nobles who had joined the Romans were involved and executed.

When the Roman army reached Tigranocerta, the city leaders quickly decided to surrender. So, the city was saved. Soon after, the Parthian army tried to enter Armenia, but Roman auxiliary commander Verulanus Severus stopped them.

The Romans now controlled Armenia. They put a new king, Tigranes VI, in Tigranocerta. He was from an old royal family. Some western parts of Armenia were given to Roman allies. Corbulo left about 3,000-4,000 soldiers to support the new king. Then he returned to Syria, where he became governor in 60 AD as a reward for his success.

Parthian Counterattack

A Parthian horse-archer. These skilled riders were a key part of the Parthian army. With heavy cavalry, they had defeated a Roman army at Carrhae before.

The Romans knew their victory was not final. They knew the Parthian king would focus on Armenia once he dealt with his own rebellions. King Vologases did not want a full war with Rome. But he had to act when Tigranes raided a Parthian province in 61 AD. The governor of that province, Monobazus, complained loudly and asked for protection. Vologases could not ignore this, as his power was at stake.

So, Vologases quickly made peace with the rebels. This freed him to fight Rome. He gathered his nobles and publicly crowned Tiridates again as king of Armenia. To put his brother back on the throne, Vologases gathered a strong force of cavalry (horse soldiers) and infantry (foot soldiers).

Corbulo sent two legions, the Fourth Scythica and the Twelfth Fulminata, to Armenia. He used his other three legions to strengthen the border along the Euphrates river. He feared the Parthians might invade Syria. He also asked Nero to appoint a separate general for Cappadocia to lead the war in Armenia.

Parthian Siege of Tigranocerta

Meanwhile, Monaeses, the Parthian commander, entered Armenia and neared Tigranocerta. Tigranes had gathered supplies, and the city was well-fortified. Roman and Armenian soldiers guarded it. The siege was mostly done by the foot soldiers, as the Parthian cavalry were not good at sieges. The Parthian attack failed, and a Roman attack from the city pushed them back with losses.

Corbulo sent a messenger to Vologases, who was camped near Tigranocerta. The failed siege and lack of food for his cavalry forced Vologases to agree to pull Monaeses out of Armenia. At the same time, the Romans also left Armenia. This made some people wonder about Corbulo's reasons. Some whispered he had made a secret deal with the Parthians. A truce was made, and Parthian messengers were sent to Rome. The talks failed, and the war started again in the spring of 62 AD.

A new governor, Lucius Caesennius Paetus, arrived in Cappadocia. The army was split between him and Corbulo. Paetus got the Fourth Scythica, Twelfth Fulminata, the newly arrived Fifth Macedonica, and auxiliaries. Corbulo kept his experienced legions: the Third Gallica, Sixth Ferrata, and Tenth Fretensis. The two Roman commanders did not get along well. Corbulo kept his best legions, giving Paetus the less experienced ones. Still, the total Roman force was large, with about 30,000 legionaries.

Battle of Rhandeia

A silver coin of Vologases I, King of Parthia.

Paetus felt sure he would win. After the Parthians declared war, he invaded Armenia with only two legions. He captured a few small forts. But a lack of supplies forced him to go back west for the winter.

The Parthians had planned to invade Syria. But Corbulo showed off his military strength. He built a strong fleet of ships and a bridge over the Euphrates. This allowed him to set up a base on the Parthian side. So, the Parthians changed their plans and focused on Armenia.

In Armenia, Paetus had spread out his forces and let his officers take long breaks. So, he was surprised by the Parthian advance. He first tried to meet Vologases. But after a small group of his soldiers was defeated, he panicked and quickly retreated. Paetus sent his wife and son to safety in a fortress. He tried to block the Parthian advance by putting soldiers in the mountain passes. But this spread his forces even thinner, and the Parthians defeated them in small groups.

Roman morale dropped, and panic spread. The army was now surrounded in hastily built camps near Rhandeia. Paetus seemed to give up hope. He sent urgent messages to Corbulo for help.

Operations in the final years of the war. Tigranes' raids led to a Parthian attack, which ended with the Roman army of L. Caesennius Paetus surrendering.

Corbulo knew his colleague was in danger. He had some forces ready, but he did not march immediately. Some people accused him of delaying to get more glory from the rescue. However, when the calls for help came, he responded quickly. He marched with half of the Syrian army, carrying many supplies on camels. He soon met scattered Roman soldiers from Paetus's army and gathered them.

But before he could arrive, Paetus had surrendered. The Parthians knew help was coming. They attacked the Romans more and more until Paetus had to send a letter to Vologases to ask for terms. The agreement was humiliating. The Romans had to leave Armenia and give up all their forts. They also agreed to build a bridge over a nearby river so Vologases could cross in triumph, riding on an elephant. The Armenian soldiers also freely took the Romans' weapons and clothes. Even worse, rumors said the Romans were made to "pass under the yoke," which was a sign of ultimate humiliation for Romans.

The two Roman forces met near the Euphrates river. Corbulo was sad about his achievements being undone. Paetus tried to convince him to invade Armenia again. But Corbulo refused. He said he did not have the authority, and the army was too tired to fight well. Paetus went back to Cappadocia, and Corbulo returned to Syria. There, he met messengers from Vologases. Vologases demanded that Corbulo leave his base across the Euphrates. Corbulo, in turn, demanded the Parthians leave Armenia. Vologases agreed, and both sides pulled back their forces. Armenia was left without a clear ruler but was controlled by the Parthians until a Parthian group could go to Rome.

Peace and What Happened Next

Rome, it seems, did not fully know what was happening in Armenia. Tacitus wrote that "trophies for the Parthian war and arches were built in the center of the Capitoline hill" by the Senate, even though the war was not over. Any false hopes the Roman leaders had were crushed when the Parthian messengers arrived in Rome in 63 AD. Their demands and questions to the Roman soldier who came with them showed Nero and the Senate how bad the defeat truly was. Paetus had hidden the truth in his reports.

However, the Romans decided to "accept a dangerous war over a disgraceful peace." Paetus was called back, and Corbulo was put in charge of the Armenian campaign again. He was given special authority over all other governors and allied rulers in the East. Corbulo's job as governor of Syria was given to Gaius Cestius Gallus.

Corbulo reorganized his forces. He sent the defeated and discouraged Fourth Scythica and Twelfth Fulminata legions to Syria. He left the Tenth Fretensis to guard Cappadocia. He led his experienced Third Gallica and Sixth Ferrata to Melitene, where the invasion army would gather. He also added the Fifth Macedonica, which had not been part of the defeat, and the newly arrived Fifteenth Apollinaris. He also had many auxiliaries and soldiers from allied kings.

After his army crossed the Euphrates, he received messengers from Tiridates and Vologases. Seeing such a large Roman army and knowing Corbulo's skill, the two Parthian leaders wanted to talk. Corbulo, likely following Nero's orders, repeated Rome's old demand: if Tiridates would accept his crown from Rome, then war could be avoided. Tiridates quickly agreed to talks. Rhandeia, where the Romans had been defeated last year, was chosen as the meeting place. For the Armenians, this place reminded them of their strength. Corbulo agreed to it because he hoped to erase the earlier shame, either by peace or war.

Once there, Corbulo put Paetus's son in charge of finding the remains of the Roman soldiers and burying them properly. On the agreed day, Tiridates and Corbulo, each with 20 horsemen, met between the two camps. Tiridates agreed to go to Rome and get his crown approved by Nero. To show this agreement, a few days later, both armies showed off their full parade gear. Tiridates approached the Roman camp, where a statue of Emperor Nero stood on a raised platform. He placed his royal crown at its feet as a sign of his submission.

Lasting Peace and Changes

A coin from 66 AD, showing the gates of the Temple of Janus closed. This meant there was peace throughout the Roman Empire. But it did not last long.

In 66 AD, Tiridates visited Rome to receive his crown. Nero welcomed him grandly and used the event to become more popular. He ordered the gates of the Temple of Janus to be shut. This was a symbol that peace ruled across the Roman Empire.

Nero celebrated this peace as a great success. He was called "imperator" (a title for a victorious general) and held a "triumph" (a grand parade). But no new land had been won. The peace was a compromise, not a full victory. Rome could win battles in Armenia, but politically, it had no other good choice for the Armenian throne than a Parthian prince. Armenia would now be ruled by a Parthian family. Even though it was loyal to Rome in name, it would come under more Parthian influence. Later generations thought "Nero had lost Armenia."

However, the Peace of Rhandeia brought a time of peace that lasted for 50 years. But Armenia would continue to be a point of disagreement between the Romans and the Parthians.

As for Corbulo, Nero honored him for bringing this "triumph." But Corbulo's popularity and influence with the army made him a possible rival. His son-in-law was involved in a plot against Nero in 66 AD. Because of this, Nero became suspicious of Corbulo. In 67 AD, while Corbulo was traveling in Greece, Nero ordered him to be killed. Corbulo took his own life when he heard this.

The war also showed the Romans that their defense system in the East was not good enough anymore. So, in the years that followed, the Roman East was reorganized. Client kingdoms like Pontus and Colchis (in 64 AD), and Cilicia, Commagene, and Lesser Armenia (in 72 AD) became Roman provinces. The number of legions in the area increased. Roman presence in allied states like Iberia and Albania was strengthened. The goal was to surround Armenia strategically. Direct Roman control reached the entire Euphrates river line. This marked the start of the Eastern "limes" (border defenses) that lasted until the Muslim conquests in the 7th century.