Sicilian Expedition facts for kids
Quick facts for kids Sicilian Expedition |
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| Part of the Peloponnesian War | |||||||
 Destruction of the Athenian army at Syracuse, as drawn in 1900 |
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| Belligerents | |||||||
| Delian League (led by Athens) Segesta Etruscans |
Peloponnesian League (led by Sparta) Corinth Syracuse |
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| Commanders and leaders | |||||||
Nicias (POW)  ,Lamachus †, Demosthenes (POW) ,Eurymedon † |
Gylippus, Hermocrates |
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| Strength | |||||||
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Original expedition:
414 BC reinforcements:
413 BC reinforcements:
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Initially:
Gylippus's relief force:
413 BC relief force from Greece:
413 BC Sicilian relief force:
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| Casualties and losses | |||||||
| Entire expeditionary force killed, captured or sold into slavery | Unknown | ||||||
| Alcibiades began the conflict as one of the Athenian commanders, but was recalled to Athens to face trial and subsequently defected to Sparta | |||||||
The Sicilian Expedition was a huge military mission by the ancient Greek city of Athens. It happened from 415 to 413 BC during the Peloponnesian War. This war was fought between Athens and its allies, and Sparta and its allies, including Syracuse and Corinth.
The expedition aimed to conquer the island of Sicily. However, it ended in a terrible defeat for Athens. This loss greatly weakened Athens and was a major turning point in the Peloponnesian War.
The mission faced problems from the start. Its goals were unclear, and the leaders had different ideas. A small group of 20 ships grew into a huge fleet because of political arguments in Athens. Also, the main supporter of the expedition, Alcibiades, was called back to Athens to face accusations even before the fleet reached Sicily.
Despite these issues, the Athenians had some early successes. Syracuse, the strongest city in Sicily, was slow to react. It was almost completely surrounded by Athenian forces. But then, a Spartan general named Gylippus arrived. He inspired the people of Syracuse to fight back.
From that point on, the war turned against Athens. A large group of new ships from Athens briefly gave them an advantage again. But a failed attack on a key high point and several big naval defeats hurt the Athenian soldiers' ability to fight. Their spirits also dropped. The Athenians tried to escape from Syracuse, but they failed. Nearly the entire Athenian force was captured or destroyed in Sicily.
The defeat had a huge impact. Athens lost 200 ships and thousands of soldiers. This was a big part of its total fighting force. Athens' enemies were encouraged, and rebellions started in other areas. Some historians believe this defeat was the turning point of the war. Athens kept fighting for another ten years, but it was much harder. The historian Thucydides noted that people at the time were surprised Athens fought on for so long after such a devastating loss.
Contents
Why Athens Went to Sicily
Athens' Interest in Sicily
Athens had some connections to Sicily even before the Peloponnesian War. For smaller Sicilian cities, Athens seemed like a good way to balance the power of Syracuse. Syracuse was strong enough to control the whole island.
Syracuse was a Dorian city, like Sparta. Most of Athens' allies on the island were Ionian. Also, Syracuse and other Dorian cities were close to Corinth, which was a big trading rival of Athens. For Athens, Sicily was both a threat and a chance for new conquests. Syracuse could send food or other help to Sparta.
In 427 BC, Athens sent 20 ships to help Leontini, a city in Sicily. This group stayed for several years, fighting with Athens' allies against Syracuse. But they didn't win any big victories. In 425 BC, Athens planned to send more ships, but they got caught up in another important battle on the way. By the time they reached Sicily, Athens' allies were tired of fighting. They made peace with Syracuse. The Athenian fleet then went home.
The War's Situation
In 415 BC, Athens and Sparta were officially at peace. This peace treaty, called the Peace of Nicias, had ended an earlier part of the war in 421 BC. However, the terms of the peace were never fully followed. Sparta didn't give back a city called Amphipolis to Athens. In return, Athens kept a place called Pylos.
More recently, Athenian and Spartan soldiers had fought in 418 BC. Athens had supported other cities trying to form an alliance against Sparta. This effort, led by the Athenian nobleman Alcibiades, would have broken Sparta's power if it had worked. Alcibiades was still a powerful figure in Athens. Control of Athens' foreign policy was split between those who wanted peace (led by Nicias) and those who wanted war (led by Alcibiades).
Starting the Expedition
Segesta Asks for Help
The peace in Sicily didn't last long. Syracuse got involved in a fight between two groups in Leontini. Syracuse supported one side. Soon, the people of Leontini united against Syracuse.
In 416 BC, another conflict in Sicily gave Athens a reason to get involved. The city of Segesta, which was an ally of Athens, went to war against Selinus. After losing a battle, Segesta asked Athens for help. To get Athens' support, Segesta claimed they could pay for much of the fleet. They offered a lot of silver. They also tricked Athenian visitors into thinking the city was much richer than it was. They showed off all their valuable items as if they were common things.
The Big Debate in Athens
In Athens, the Segestan ambassadors presented their request to the assembly, which was the main meeting place for citizens. The debate quickly split people into groups. The assembly first approved sending 60 ships, without many soldiers. Nicias, Alcibiades, and Lamachus were chosen as commanders.
Five days later, another meeting was held to plan the details. Nicias tried to convince the assembly to change their minds. He warned that Athens would be leaving powerful enemies behind if they sent a force to Sicily. He also said they would be fighting enemies that were too strong to defeat. Nicias also criticized Alcibiades, saying he and his friends were young and inexperienced. He claimed they just wanted war for their own glory.
Alcibiades responded by reminding everyone of the good things he had done for Athens. He said Athens had a duty to its Sicilian allies. He also said that many cities in Sicily would support Athens.
The assembly seemed to agree with Alcibiades. So Nicias tried a different approach. He described how rich and powerful the Sicilian cities were. He said a much larger expedition would be needed, hoping that the cost would make the citizens change their minds. But Nicias's plan failed. The assembly enthusiastically approved an even bigger force: over 100 ships and 5,000 soldiers. This mistake by Nicias made the situation much worse. Losing 60 ships would have been bad, but losing this huge force would be a disaster.
Bad Omens Before Sailing
After long preparations, the fleet was ready. The night before they were to leave, someone destroyed many of the hermai. These were stone markers of the god Hermes, placed around the city for good luck. This event was taken very seriously. People saw it as a bad sign for the expedition. They also thought it was proof of a secret plan to overthrow the government.
Alcibiades was accused of being responsible. He offered to go on trial right away to prove his innocence. But this request was denied. He was very popular with the army. He also had the support of other cities. So he was not charged, and the fleet sailed. However, his opponents waited until Alcibiades had left. Then they brought charges against him. They knew that with the army gone, his supporters would be outnumbered.
Syracuse Prepares
Many people in Syracuse, the richest city in Sicily, felt that the Athenians were actually coming to attack them. They thought the story about helping Segesta was just an excuse. The Syracusan general Hermocrates suggested they ask for help from other Sicilian cities and from Carthage. He also wanted to meet the Athenian fleet at sea before they arrived.
Others argued that Athens was not a threat. Some didn't even believe a fleet was coming. They thought Athens wouldn't be foolish enough to attack them while still at war with Sparta. Another leader, Athenagoras, accused Hermocrates of trying to scare people and overthrow the government.
Three Generals, Three Plans
Athens chose Nicias, Alcibiades, and Lamachus as commanders. Alcibiades was the main supporter of the expedition. Nicias was its biggest critic. Lamachus was an experienced soldier. The Athenians might have chosen them to balance the aggressive young leader (Alcibiades) with a more careful older one (Nicias), and Lamachus for his military skills.
Each general had a different plan.
- Nicias wanted a limited mission. He thought the fleet should go to Selinus and make peace between Selinus and Segesta. Then, they should show their strength around Sicily and go home, unless Segesta paid for the whole expedition.
- Alcibiades wanted to first win over allies on the island through talking. Then, he wanted to attack Selinus and Syracuse.
- Lamachus wanted to use surprise. He suggested sailing directly to Syracuse and attacking right away. He believed a sudden attack would catch the Syracusans off guard and make them surrender quickly.
In the end, Lamachus agreed with Alcibiades's plan.
The Expedition Begins
Athenian Arrival
The Athenian fleet first sailed to Corcyra to meet their allies. The ships were split into three groups, one for each commander. Three ships went ahead to look for allies in Sicily. The fleet was huge: 134 triremes (100 from Athens), 5,100 hoplites (heavy soldiers), 480 archers, 700 slingers, and other troops. There were also 130 supply ships.
They had little luck finding allies along the coast of Italy. When the three scout ships returned, they reported that Segesta didn't have the money they promised. Nicias had expected this, but the other commanders were disappointed. Nicias again suggested a show of force and then returning home. Alcibiades still wanted to encourage revolts against Syracuse and then attack Syracuse and Selinus. Lamachus insisted they should attack Syracuse immediately.
The fleet went to Catania. There, an Athenian ship arrived to tell Alcibiades he was under arrest. He was accused of destroying the hermai and disrespecting religious ceremonies. Alcibiades agreed to return on his ship. But when they stopped in southern Italy, he escaped and sailed to Sparta. In Sparta, he gave important information about Athens to the Peloponnesian League. Athens then declared him guilty while he was away.
In Sicily, the fleet was split. Nicias sailed to Segesta and made them pay the money they had promised. Lamachus attacked Hyccara, a small city allied to Selinus, and enslaved its people. The Athenian army then marched through Sicily to impress and negotiate with local tribes. They returned to Catania for the winter to prepare for a siege of Syracuse.
When the fighting season began, the Syracusans moved against the Athenians at Catania. But while they were marching, they learned the Athenians had sailed into the Great Harbour at Syracuse. The Syracusans rushed back to prepare for battle.
First Battle at Syracuse
The Athenian army landed south of Syracuse and built a strong position. When the Syracusan army arrived, both sides waited. The Syracusans eventually pulled back for the night. The next morning, the Athenians lined up for battle. The Syracusans had more cavalry, but the total number of soldiers was similar.
The Athenians attacked first. After some strong fighting, the Athenians pushed back the Syracusan left side, causing the rest to run away. The Syracusan cavalry stopped the Athenians from chasing them, which saved the Syracusans from a complete disaster. The Syracusans lost about 260 men, and the Athenians about 50. The Athenians then sailed back to Catania for the winter.
Winter Preparations and New Arrivals
Hermocrates suggested that the Syracusans reorganize their army. He wanted to reduce the number of generals from fifteen to three. Hermocrates and two others were chosen. Hermocrates sent for help from Corinth and Sparta. During the winter, the Athenians also asked for more money and cavalry. The Syracusans built new forts and walls to expand their city's defenses.
Diplomats from both sides went to Camarina to try and get them as an ally. Hermocrates wanted Camarina to join Syracuse against Athens. But the Athenian representative said Syracuse only wanted to rule Camarina. He argued they should join Athens to stay free. The people of Camarina decided not to join either side. However, they secretly sent help to Syracuse, as they feared Syracuse more.
Athens also asked for help from Carthage and the Etruscans. Both were old enemies of Syracuse. Carthage stayed out of the fight. But several Etruscan cities sent a small force to help Athens. This Etruscan help, though small, was important.
In Corinth, Syracusan representatives met with Alcibiades, who was now working with Sparta. Alcibiades told Sparta that if Sicily was conquered, Athens would invade Sparta's homeland. He advised them to send help to Syracuse and to fortify Decelea near Athens. He said Athens feared nothing more than Decelea being occupied. Sparta took this advice and sent Gylippus to lead their forces.
In the spring of 414 BC, Athens received reinforcements: 250 cavalry, 30 mounted archers, and money to hire 400 more cavalry from their Sicilian allies. In the summer, they landed on the Epipolae, a cliff above Syracuse. This area was defended by Syracusans. In the attack, the Athenian forces killed many of the defenders.
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Both sides then started building walls. The Athenians built a wall called "the Circle" to block Syracuse from the rest of the island. The Syracusans built several counter-walls from their city to their forts. Athenians destroyed part of the first counter-wall. But the Syracusans built another, with a ditch, stopping the Athenians from reaching the sea. Another Athenian attack captured this wall. However, a Syracusan counter-attack drove them off. In this fight, Lamachus was killed, leaving only Nicias as the original commander. The Syracusans destroyed part of the Athenian wall, but couldn't destroy the main "Circle" defense. After Nicias defended it, the Athenians finally extended their wall to the sea. This completely blocked Syracuse by land. Their fleet also entered the harbor, blocking the city by sea. The Syracusans then replaced their generals.
Sparta Steps In
Soon after, the Spartan general Gylippus arrived at Himera. He marched towards Syracuse with 700 armed sailors, 1,000 soldiers from Himera and Selinus, 100+ cavalry, and 1,000 local Sicel warriors. They built another counter-wall on the Epipolae. The Athenians pushed them back. But in a second battle, Gylippus defeated the Athenians by using his cavalry and javelin-throwers better. The Syracusans finished their counter-wall, making the Athenian wall useless. The Corinthian fleet also arrived.
Nicias, who was sick and tired, now believed it was impossible to capture Syracuse. He wrote a letter to Athens, asking them to either call back the expedition or send huge reinforcements. He hoped they would call him back. Instead, Athens decided to send more troops under Demosthenes and Eurymedon. Eurymedon left immediately with ten ships, and Demosthenes followed later with a much larger force. Meanwhile, in early 413 BC, Sparta followed Alcibiades's advice and fortified Decelea near Athens. The Athenian force sent to stop them was destroyed.
While Eurymedon was sailing, 80 Syracusan ships attacked 60 Athenian ships in the harbor. Gylippus also led a land attack. In the harbor, the Athenians won, losing only three ships while the Syracusans lost eleven. However, Gylippus defeated the Athenians on land and captured two Athenian forts. After this, Gylippus convinced all the neutral cities in Sicily to join him. But Athens' allies killed 800 Corinthians, including most of their ambassadors.
Demosthenes Arrives
Demosthenes and Eurymedon then arrived with 73 ships and 5,000 soldiers. When they arrived, 80 Syracusan ships attacked 75 Athenian ships in the harbor. This battle lasted two days with no clear winner. Then, the Syracusans pretended to retreat and attacked the Athenians while they were eating. Only seven Athenian ships were sunk.
Demosthenes landed his forces and attacked the Syracusan counter-wall on Epipolae at night. This was a risky move, and Nicias had advised against it. Demosthenes managed to break through the wall, pushing back some Syracusan defenders. But a force of soldiers from Boeotia in the Spartan army defeated him. Many Athenians fell off the cliff and died. Others were killed as they fled down the slope. Plutarch says 2,000 Athenians were lost in this action.
Demosthenes' arrival didn't help the Athenians much. Their camp was near a swamp, and many soldiers were sick, including Nicias. Seeing this, Demosthenes thought they should all return to Athens. He wanted them to defend Athens against the Spartan invasion that had taken Decelea. Nicias, who had been against the expedition at first, now didn't want to show weakness. He feared being executed by the Athenians at home. He said he would rather die fighting the enemy. He also hoped the Syracusans would soon run out of money. He had heard there were people in Syracuse ready to hand the city over to him. Demosthenes and Eurymedon reluctantly agreed that Nicias might be right. But when more reinforcements from Sparta arrived, Nicias agreed they should leave.
Final Battle and Retreat
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Just as the Athenians were getting ready to sail home, on August 28, there was a lunar eclipse. Nicias, who was very superstitious, asked the priests what to do. They told him the Athenians should wait for another 27 days. Nicias agreed.
The Athenians were now in a desperate situation. On September 3, the Syracusans completely blocked the entrance to the port, trapping the Athenians inside. Outside Syracuse, the Athenians built a smaller walled area for their sick and injured. Everyone else, including many soldiers from land, went onto their ships for one last battle on September 9. About 100 ships from each side fought.
The Athenian ships were very crowded and couldn't move well. Collisions happened often. The Syracusans could easily ram the Athenian ships head-on. Javelin throwers and archers shot from each ship. The Syracusans protected their decks with animal hides to stop Athenian grappling hooks.
The battle went on for some time with no clear winner. But the Athenian center eventually broke and ran. Instead of chasing them, the Corinthian ships turned to attack the vulnerable Athenian right side. Attacked from many directions, the right side was defeated and mostly destroyed. The Athenian ships were pushed toward the coast. Most Athenian crews left their trapped ships and ran to their camp. Seeing the Athenians running, Gylippus ordered a quick attack on land to catch them. However, a small group of Etruscans who had come to help Athens stopped Gylippus's attack. This gave the Athenians time to regroup. They returned to fight alongside the Etruscans, saving some of their ships on the beach. One historian said the Etruscans "saved the day" for the Athenians.
Demosthenes suggested they get back on the ships and try to force their way out. Nicias agreed. But the men didn't want to get back on the ships because they were scared. They then decided to retreat by land. Hermocrates sent some fake messengers to the Athenians. They falsely reported that there were spies and roadblocks further inland. This was to make the Athenians delay their march. Gylippus used this delay to build the roadblocks that didn't exist before. The Syracusans also burned or towed away the Athenian ships on the beach. This meant the Athenians had no way to leave the island by sea.
Syracuse Wins Completely
On September 13, the Athenians left their camp. They left their wounded behind and their dead unburied. The survivors, including all the non-soldiers, numbered 40,000. Some wounded people crawled after them as far as they could. As they marched, they defeated a small Syracusan force guarding a river. But other Syracusan cavalry and light troops kept bothering them.
Near another river, Demosthenes and Nicias got separated. Demosthenes was attacked by the Syracusans and forced to surrender his 6,000 troops. The rest of the Syracusans followed Nicias to the Assinarus river. Nicias's troops became disorganized as they rushed to find drinking water. Many Athenians were crushed to death. Others were killed fighting their own fellow Athenians. On the other side of the river, a Syracusan force was waiting. The Athenians were almost completely wiped out. This was the worst defeat of the whole expedition in terms of lives lost. Nicias surrendered to Gylippus, hoping the Spartan would remember his role in the peace treaty of 421 BC. A few who escaped found safety in Catana.
The prisoners, now only 7,000, were held in stone quarries near Syracuse. These were thought to be the safest prison for so many men. Demosthenes and Nicias were killed, even though Gylippus had ordered them to be spared. The others spent ten weeks in terrible conditions. All but the Athenians, Italians, and Sicilians were sold as slaves. The remaining Athenians were left to die slowly from disease and hunger in the quarry. In the end, some of the very last survivors managed to escape. They eventually made it back to Athens, bringing the first news of the disaster.
Why the Expedition Failed
Some historians say the Sicilian expedition was doomed from the start. They see Athens' attempt to conquer Sicily as an example of extreme overconfidence. Others argue that the plan itself wasn't bad. They believe it would have worked if the Athenian leaders hadn't made so many poor decisions. Many agree that the biggest reason for the disaster was Nicias's poor leadership, made worse by Alcibiades being called back.
What Happened Next
For Athens, the expedition was a "human disaster" as painful as a plague. It also severely hurt the city's war efforts and its control over its allies. Sparta used this weakness to put more pressure on Athens in the following years. The Etruscans who fought with Athens were proud of their role. Some Etruscan families might have honored their involvement for centuries.
Athens' Reaction
In Athens, citizens at first didn't believe the news of the defeat. The historian Plutarch tells a story about how the news reached the city:
A stranger sitting in a barber's shop in Piraeus started talking about what happened, as if everyone already knew. The barber heard this and ran to the city to tell the leaders. Everyone was terrified. The leaders called a meeting and questioned the man. He couldn't give a good explanation, so they thought he was spreading false news and causing trouble. They tortured him for a long time. Then, other messengers arrived who told the whole terrible story in detail. It was hard for people to believe that Nicias had suffered the disaster he had often predicted.
When the full scale of the disaster became clear, there was widespread panic. Athens seemed open to attack, as the Spartans were so close by.
The defeat also changed the policies of many other states. Cities that had been neutral now joined Sparta, thinking Athens was about to fall. Many of Athens' allies also rebelled. Although Athens immediately started rebuilding its fleet, there was little they could do about the revolts for a while. The expedition and its disaster left Athens reeling. About 10,000 heavy soldiers had died. But the biggest problem was the loss of the huge fleet. Ships could be replaced, but the 30,000 experienced rowers lost in Sicily were irreplaceable. Athens had to rely on less trained people for its new fleet.
In 411 BC, the Athenian democracy was temporarily replaced by a small group of rulers. Persia also joined the war on Sparta's side. Even though things looked bad for Athens, they managed to recover for a few years. The small group of rulers was soon overthrown, and Athens won a naval battle. However, the defeat of the Sicilian expedition was truly the beginning of the end for Athens. In 404 BC, they were finally defeated and occupied by Sparta.
Images for kids
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Destruction of the Athenian army at Syracuse, as drawn in 1900
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Sicily and the Peloponnesian War
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The route the Athenian fleet took to Sicily
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Map of the siege showing walls and counter-walls
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Retreat of the Athenians from Syracuse
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Map of Athenian retreat from Syracuse
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Destruction of the Athenian army in Sicily
