kids encyclopedia robot

Minister of Justice (Italy) facts for kids

Kids Encyclopedia Facts
Quick facts for kids
Minister of Justice
Ministero della Giustizia.svg
Carlo Nordio 2022 (cropped).jpg
Incumbent
Carlo Nordio

since October 22, 2022
Ministry of Justice
Member of Council of Ministers
Seat Rome
Appointer The President of Italy
Term length No fixed term
Formation March 23, 1861; 163 years ago (1861-03-23)
First holder Giovanni Battista Cassinis

This is a list of the Italian ministers of justice since 1946. The minister of justice is a senior member of the Italian Cabinet and leads the Ministry of Justice.

The first Italian minister of justice is Giovanni Battista Cassinis, member of the Historical Right, who held the office in 1861 in the government of Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour; while the longest-serving minister was Alfredo Rocco, who served in the fascist government of Benito Mussolini from 1925 until 1932. The current minister is Carlo Nordio, appointed on 22 October 2022 in the government of Giorgia Meloni.

List of ministers of justice

Kingdom of Italy

Parties

  • 1861–1912:
    •       Historical Right
    •       Historical Left
    •       Italian Radical Party
  • 1912–1922:
    •       Liberal Union
    •       Italian Radical Party
    •       Democratic Liberal Party
    •       Italian Social Democratic Party
    •       Italian People's Party
    •       Independent
  • 1922–1943:
  • 1943–1946:
    •       Italian Liberal Party
    •       Christian Democracy
    •       Italian Communist Party
    •       Independent

Coalitions

  • 1861–1912:
    •       Rightist coalition
    •       Leftist coalition
    •       Mixed coalition
  • 1912–1922:
    •       Liberal coalition
  • 1922–1943:
  • 1943–1946:

Ministers

Portrait Name
(Born–Died)
Term of office Party Government Ref.
Took office Left office Time in office
Minister of Grace, Justice and Ecclesiastic Affairs
Giovanni Battista Cassinis iii.jpg Giovanni Battista Cassinis
(1806–1866)
23 March 1861 12 June 1861 81 days Historical Right Cavour IV
Vincenzo Miglietti.gif Vincenzo Maria Miglietti
(1809–1864)
12 June 1861 3 March 1862 263 days Historical Right Ricasoli I
Minister of Grace, Justice and Worships
Filippo Cordova (cropped).jpg Filippo Cordova
(1811–1868)
3 March 1862 7 April 1862 35 days Historical Right Rattazzi I
Raffaele Conforti.jpg Raffaele Conforti
(1804–1880)
7 April 1862 8 December 1862 245 days Historical Left
Giuseppe Pisanelli (cropped).jpg Giuseppe Pisanelli
(1812–1879)
8 December 1862 28 September 1864 1 year, 295 days Historical Left Farini
Minghetti I
Giuseppe Vacca.gif Giuseppe Vacca
(1810–1876)
28 September 1864 10 August 1865 316 days Historical Right La Marmora II
No image.svg Paolo Cortese
(1827–1876)
10 August 1865 31 December 1865 143 days Historical Right
Giovanni De Falco.gif Giovanni De Falco
(1818–1886)
31 December 1865 20 June 1866 171 days Historical Right La Marmora III
Francesco Borgatti.gif Francesco Borgatti
(1818–1885)
20 June 1886 17 February 1867 242 days Historical Right Ricasoli II
Bettino Ricasoli 2.jpg Bettino Ricasoli
(1809–1880)
As Prime Minister
17 February 1867 24 March 1867 35 days Historical Right
Filippo Cordova (cropped).jpg Filippo Cordova
(1811–1868)
24 March 1867 10 April 1867 17 days Historical Right
Sebastiano Tecchio.jpg Sebastiano Tecchio
(1807–1886)
10 April 1867 27 October 1867 200 days Historical Left Rattazzi II
Adriano Mari.jpg Adriano Mari
(1813–1887)
27 October 1867 5 January 1868 70 days Historical Right Menabrea I
Gennaro De Filippo.jpg Gennaro De Filippo
(1816–1887)
5 January 1868 25 May 1869 1 year, 140 days Historical Right Menabrea II·III
MichelePironti.jpg Michele Pironti
(1814–1885)
25 May 1869 22 October 1869 150 days Historical Right
Paolo Onorato Vigliani.jpg Paolo Onorato Vigliani
(1813–1900)
22 October 1869 14 December 1869 53 days Historical Right Menabrea III
Matteo Raeli.jpg Matteo Raeli
(1812–1875)
14 December 1869 24 February 1871 1 year, 72 days Historical Right Lanza
Giovanni De Falco.gif Giovanni De Falco
(1818–1886)
24 February 1871 10 July 1873 2 years, 136 days Historical Right
Paolo Onorato Vigliani.jpg Paolo Onorato Vigliani
(1813–1900)
10 July 1873 25 March 1876 2 years, 259 days Historical Right Minghetti II
Pasquale Stanislao Mancini (cropped).jpg Pasquale Stanislao Mancini
(1817–1888)
25 March 1876 24 March 1878 1 year, 364 days Historical Left Depretis I·II
Raffaele Conforti.jpg Raffaele Conforti
(1804–1880)
24 March 1878 19 December 1878 270 days Historical Left Cairoli I
Diego Tajani.JPG Diego Tajani
(1827–1921)
19 December 1878 14 July 1879 207 days Historical Left Depretis III
Giambattista Varè, vice-presidente della Camera dei Deputati.jpg Giovanni Battista Varè
(1832–1915)
14 July 1879 25 November 1879 134 days Historical Left Cairoli II
Tommaso Villa 2.jpg Tommaso Villa
(1832–1915)
25 November 1879 29 May 1881 1 year, 185 days Historical Left Cairoli III
Giuseppe Zanardelli iii without oval frame.jpg Giuseppe Zanardelli
(1832–1915)
29 May 1881 25 May 1883 1 year, 361 days Historical Left Depretis IV
Giannuzzi Savelli.gif Bernardino Giannuzzi-Savelli
(1822–1887)
25 May 1883 30 May 1884 1 year, 5 days Historical Left Depretis V
Nicolò Ferraggiù.jpg Niccolò Ferracciu
(1815–1892)
30 May 1884 24 November 1884 178 days Historical Left Depretis VI
Enrico Pessina ministro di Grazia e Giustizia.jpg Enrico Pessina
(1828–1916)
24 November 1884 29 June 1885 217 days Historical Left
Diego Tajani.JPG Diego Tajani
(1827–1921)
29 June 1885 4 April 1887 1 year, 279 days Historical Left Depretis VII
Giuseppe Zanardelli iii without oval frame.jpg Giuseppe Zanardelli
(1832–1915)
4 April 1887 6 February 1891 3 years, 308 days Historical Left Depretis VIII
Crispi I·II
Luigi Ferraris politico.gif Luigi Ferraris
(1813–1900)
6 February 1891 31 December 1891 328 days Historical Right Di Rudinì I
Bruno Chimirri.gif Bruno Chimirri
(1842–1917)
31 December 1891 15 May 1892 136 days Historical Right
Teodorico Bonacci.gif Teodorico Bonacci
(1838–1905)
15 May 1892 24 May 1893 1 year, 6 days Historical Left Giolitti I
Lorenzo Eula.gif Lorenzo Eula
(1823–1893)
24 May 1893 8 July 1893 45 days Historical Left
Francesco Santamaria Nicolini.gif Francesco Santamaria-Nicolini
(1830–1918)
8 July 1893 27 September 1893 79 days Historical Left
Giacomo Armò.gif Giacomo Armò
(1830–1909)
27 September 1893 15 December 1893 81 days Historical Left
Vincenzo Calenda datisenato.gif Vincenzo Calenda di Tavani
(1830–1910)
15 December 1893 10 March 1896 2 years, 86 days Historical Left Crispi III·IV
Il ministro Giacomo Giuseppe Costa.jpg Giacomo Giuseppe Costa
(1833–1897)
10 March 1896 15 August 1897 1 year, 158 days Historical Right Di Rudinì II·III
Rudini.jpg Antonio Starabba di Rudinì
(1839–1908)
As Prime Minister
15 August 1897 18 September 1897 34 days Historical Right Di Rudinì III
Emanuele Gianturco (cropped).png Emanuele Gianturco
(1857–1907)
18 September 1897 14 December 1897 87 days Historical Right
Giuseppe Zanardelli iii without oval frame.jpg Giuseppe Zanardelli
(1832–1915)
14 December 1897 1 June 1898 169 days Historical Left Di Rudinì IV
Teodorico Bonacci.gif Teodorico Bonacci
(1838–1905)
1 June 1898 29 June 1898 28 days Historical Left Rudinì V
Camillo Finocchiaro Aprile (cropped).jpg Camillo Finocchiaro Aprile
(1851–1916)
29 June 1898 14 May 1899 319 days Historical Left Pelloux I
Abonasi.gif Adeodato Bonasi
(1831–1920)
14 May 1899 24 June 1900 1 year, 41 days Historical Right Pelloux II
Emanuele Gianturco (cropped).png Emanuele Gianturco
(1857–1907)
24 June 1900 15 February 1901 236 days Historical Right Saracco
Francesco cocco ortu.jpg Francesco Cocco-Ortu
(1842–1929)
15 February 1901 3 November 1903 2 years, 261 days Historical Left Zanardelli
Scipione Ronchetti.jpg Scipione Ronchetti
(1846–1918)
3 November 1903 28 March 1905 1 year, 145 days Historical Left Giolitti II
Tittoni
Camillo Finocchiaro Aprile (cropped).jpg Camillo Finocchiaro Aprile
(1851–1916)
28 March 1905 8 February 1906 317 days Historical Left Fortis I·II
Ettore Sacchi (cropped).jpg Ettore Sacchi
(1851–1924)
8 February 1906 29 May 1906 110 days Italian Radical Party Sonnino I
Nicolò gallo.jpg Nicolò Gallo
(1849–1907)
29 May 1906 4 March 1907 279 days Historical Left Giolitti III
Vittorio Emanuele Orlando.jpeg Vittorio Emanuele Orlando
(1860–1952)
4 March 1907 11 December 1909 2 years, 282 days Historical Left
Vittorio Scialoja 1927.jpg Vittorio Scialoja
(1856–1933)
11 December 1909 31 March 1910 110 days Historical Right Sonnino II
Cesare Fani anziano.jpg Cesare Fani
(1844–1914)
31 March 1910 30 March 1911 364 days Historical Right Luzzatti
Camillo Finocchiaro Aprile (cropped).jpg Camillo Finocchiaro Aprile
(1851–1916)
30 March 1911 21 March 1914 2 years, 356 days Liberal Union Giolitti IV
Luigi Dari (cropped).jpg Luigi Dari
(1852–1919)
21 March 1914 31 October 1914 224 days Liberal Union Salandra I
Vittorio Emanuele Orlando.jpeg Vittorio Emanuele Orlando
(1860–1952)
31 October 1914 18 June 1916 1 year, 231 days Liberal Union Salandra II
Ettore Sacchi (cropped).jpg Ettore Sacchi
(1851–1924)
18 June 1916 18 January 1919 2 years, 231 days Italian Radical Party Boselli
Orlando
Luigi Facta photo.jpg Luigi Facta
(1861–1930)
18 January 1919 23 June 1919 156 days Liberal Union Orlando
Lodovico Mortara (cropped).jpg Lodovico Mortara
(1855–1937)
23 June 1919 21 May 1920 333 days Independent Nitti I
Minister of Justice and Worship Affairs
Alfredo Falcioni.gif Alfredo Falcioni
(1868–1936)
21 May 1920 19 June 1920 29 days Democratic Liberal Party Nitti II
Luigi Fera crop.jpg Luigi Fera
(1868–1935)
19 June 1920 4 July 1921 1 year, 15 days Italian Social Democratic Party Giolitti V
Giulio Rodinò 2.jpg Giulio Rodinò
(1875–1946)
4 July 1921 26 February 1922 237 days Italian People's Party Bonomi I
Luigi Rossi 1867-1941.JPG Luigi Rossi
(1867–1941)
26 February 1922 1 August 1922 156 days Democratic Liberal Party Facta I
Giulio Alessio.jpg Giulio Alessio
(1853–1940)
1 August 1922 31 October 1922 91 days Democratic Liberal Party Facta II
Aldo Oviglio (cropped).gif Aldo Oviglio
(1873–1942)
31 October 1922 5 January 1925 2 years, 66 days National Fascist Party Mussolini
Alfredo Rocco.gif Alfredo Rocco
(1875–1935)
5 January 1925 20 July 1932 7 years, 197 days National Fascist Party
Minister of Grace and Justice
Pietro De Francisci crop.gif Pietro De Francisci
(1883–1971)
20 July 1932 24 January 1935 2 years, 188 days National Fascist Party Mussolini
Arrigo Solmi.gif Arrigo Solmi
(1873–1944)
24 January 1935 12 July 1939 4 years, 169 days National Fascist Party
Dino Grandi (cropped).jpg Dino Grandi
(1895–1988)
12 July 1939 5 February 1943 3 years, 208 days National Fascist Party
AlfredoDeMarsico.jpg Alfredo De Marsico
(1888–1985)
5 February 1943 25 July 1943 170 days National Fascist Party
Gaetano Azzariti (cropped).jpg Gaetano Azzariti
(1881–1961)
25 July 1943 15 February 1944 205 days Independent Badoglio I
Ettore Casati, magistrato.jpg Ettore Casati
(1873–1945)
15 February 1944 24 April 1944 69 days Independent
Vincenzo Arangio-Ruiz.jpg Vincenzo Arangio-Ruiz
(1884–1964)
24 April 1944 18 June 1944 55 days Italian Liberal Party Badoglio II
Umberto Tupini2.jpg Umberto Tupini
(1889–1973)
18 June 1944 21 June 1945 1 year, 3 days Christian Democracy Bonomi II·III
Palmiro Togliatti (cropped).png Palmiro Togliatti
(1893–1964)
21 June 1945 13 July 1946 1 year, 22 days Italian Communist Party Parri
De Gasperi I

Italian Republic

Parties

  • 1946–1994:
    •       Italian Communist Party
    •       Italian Liberal Party
    •       Christian Democracy
    •       Italian Republican Party
    •       Italian Socialist Party
  • 1994–present:
    •       Forza Italia / The People of Freedom
    •       Party of Italian Communists
    •       Democrats of the Left
    •       Northern League
    •       Union of Democrats for Europe
    •       Democratic Party
    •       Five Star Movement
    •       Brothers of Italy
    •       Independent

Coalitions

  • 1946–1994:
    •       Centrist coalition
    •       Organic Centre-left
    •       Pentapartito / Quadripartito
    •       Mixed coalition
  • 1994–present:
    •       Centre-right coalition
    •       Centre-left coalition
    •       Mixed coalition

Ministers

Portrait Name
(Born–Died)
Term of office Party Government Ref.
Took office Left office Time in office
Minister of Grace and Justice
Fausto Gullo 2.jpg Fausto Gullo
(1887–1974)
13 July 1946 31 May 1947 323 days Italian Communist Party De Gasperi II·III
Giuseppe Grassi.jpg Giuseppe Grassi
(1883–1950)
31 May 1947 27 January 1950 2 years, 241 days Italian Liberal Party De Gasperi IV·V
Attilio Piccioni.jpg Attilio Piccioni
(1892–1976)
27 January 1950 26 July 1951 1 year, 180 days Christian Democracy De Gasperi VI
Adone Zoli.jpg Adone Zoli
(1887–1960)
26 July 1951 16 July 1953 1 year, 355 days Christian Democracy De Gasperi VII
Guido Gonella.jpg Guido Gonella
(1905–1982)
16 July 1953 17 August 1953 32 days Christian Democracy De Gasperi VIII
Antonio Azara.jpg Antonio Azara
(1883–1967)
17 August 1953 18 January 1954 154 days Christian Democracy Pella
Michele De Pietro.jpg Michele De Pietro
(1884–1967)
18 January 1954 6 July 1955 1 year, 169 days Christian Democracy Fanfani I
Scelba
Aldo Moro.jpg Aldo Moro
(1916–1978)
6 July 1955 19 May 1957 1 year, 317 days Christian Democracy Segni I
Guido Gonella.jpg Guido Gonella
(1905–1982)
19 May 1957 21 February 1962 4 years, 278 days Christian Democracy Zoli
Fanfani II
Segni II
Tambroni
Fanfani III
Giacinto Bosco.jpg Giacinto Bosco
(1905–1997)
21 February 1962 4 December 1963 1 year, 286 days Christian Democracy Fanfani IV
Leone I
Oronzo Reale.jpg Oronzo Reale
(1902–1988)
4 December 1963 24 June 1968 4 years, 203 days Italian Republican Party Moro I·II·III
Guido Gonella.jpg Guido Gonella
(1905–1982)
24 June 1968 12 December 1968 171 days Christian Democracy Leone II
Silvio Gava.jpg Silvio Gava
(1901–1999)
12 December 1968 27 March 1970 1 year, 105 days Christian Democracy Leone II
Rumor I
Rumor II
Oronzo Reale.jpg Oronzo Reale
(1902–1988)
27 March 1970 1 March 1971 339 days Italian Republican Party Rumor III
Colombo
Emilio Colombo 3.jpg Emilio Colombo
(1920–2013)
As Prime Minister
1 March 1971 17 February 1972 353 days Christian Democracy Colombo
Guido Gonella.jpg Guido Gonella
(1905–1982)
17 February 1972 7 July 1973 1 year, 140 days Christian Democracy Andreotti I·II
Mario Zagari.jpg Mario Zagari
(1913–1996)
7 July 1973 23 November 1974 1 year, 139 days Italian Socialist Party Rumor IV·V
Oronzo Reale.jpg Oronzo Reale
(1902–1988)
23 November 1974 12 February 1976 1 year, 81 days Italian Republican Party Moro IV
Francesco Paolo Bonifacio.jpg Francesco Paolo Bonifacio
(1923–1989)
12 February 1976 20 March 1979 3 years, 36 days Christian Democracy Moro V
Andreotti III·IV
Tommaso Morlino.jpg Tommaso Morlino
(1925–1983)
20 March 1979 18 October 1980 1 year, 212 days Christian Democracy Andreotti V
Cossiga I
Cossiga II
Adolfo Sarti crop.jpg Adolfo Sarti
(1928–1992)
18 October 1980 23 May 1981 217 days Christian Democracy Forlani
Clelio Darida.jpg Clelio Darida
(1927–2017)
23 May 1981 4 August 1983 2 years, 73 days Christian Democracy Forlani
Spadolini I·II
Fanfani V
Mino Martinazzoli.jpg Mino Martinazzoli
(1931–2011)
4 August 1983 1 August 1986 2 years, 362 days Christian Democracy Craxi I
Virginio Rognoni daticamera.jpg Virginio Rognoni
(1924–2022)
1 August 1986 29 July 1987 362 days Christian Democracy Craxi II
Fanfani VI
Giuliano Vassalli.jpg Giuliano Vassalli
(1915–2009)
29 July 1987 2 February 1991 3 years, 188 days Italian Socialist Party Goria
De Mita
Andreotti VI
Claudio Martelli 2.jpg Claudio Martelli
(1943– )
2 February 1991 28 April 1993 2 years, 85 days Italian Socialist Party Andreotti VI·VII
Amato I
Giovanni Conso 1990.jpg Giovanni Conso
(1922–2015)
28 April 1993 10 May 1994 1 year, 12 days Independent Amato I
Ciampi
Alfredo Biondi 1994.jpg Alfredo Biondi
(1928–2020)
10 May 1994 17 January 1995 252 days Forza Italia Berlusconi I
Filippo Mancuso.jpg Filippo Mancuso
(1922–2011)
17 January 1995 19 October 1995 275 days Independent Dini
Lamberto Dini 1996.jpg Lamberto Dini
(1931– )
As Prime Minister
19 October 1995 16 February 1996 120 days Independent
Vincenzo Caianiello.jpg Vincenzo Caianiello
(1932–2002)
16 February 1996 17 May 1996 91 days Independent
Giovanni Maria Flick.jpg Giovanni Maria Flick
(1940– )
17 May 1996 21 October 1998 2 years, 157 days Independent Prodi I
Oliviero Diliberto daticamera.jpg Oliviero Diliberto
(1956– )
21 October 1998 25 April 2000 1 year, 187 days Party of Italian Communists D'Alema I·II
Minister of Justice
Piero Fassino daticamera 2001.jpg Piero Fassino
(1949– )
25 April 2000 11 June 2001 1 year, 47 days Democrats of the Left Amato II
Roberto Castelli (2001).jpg Roberto Castelli
(1946– )
11 June 2001 17 May 2006 4 years, 340 days Northern League Berlusconi II·III
Clemente Mastella daticamera.jpg Clemente Mastella
(1947– )
17 May 2006 17 January 2008 1 year, 245 days Union of Democrats for Europe Prodi II
Romani Prodi daticamera.jpg Romano Prodi
(1939– )
As Prime Minister
17 January 2008 6 February 2008 20 days Democratic Party
Luigi Scotti.jpg Luigi Scotti
(1932– )
6 February 2008 8 May 2008 92 days Independent
Angelino Alfano daticamera.jpg Angelino Alfano
(1970– )
8 May 2008 28 July 2011 3 years, 81 days The People of Freedom Berlusconi IV
Francesco Nitto Palma Senato.jpg Nitto Francesco Palma
(1950– )
28 July 2011 16 November 2011 111 days The People of Freedom
Paola Severino - Quirinale.jpg Paola Severino
(1948– )
16 November 2011 28 April 2013 1 year, 163 days Independent Monti
Annamaria Cancellieri.jpg Annamaria Cancellieri
(1943– )
28 April 2013 22 February 2014 300 days Independent Letta
Andrea Orlando daticamera 2018 (cropped).jpg Andrea Orlando
(1969– )
22 February 2014 1 June 2018 4 years, 99 days Democratic Party Renzi
Gentiloni
Alfonso Bonafede 2019.jpg Alfonso Bonafede
(1976– )
1 June 2018 13 February 2021 2 years, 257 days Five Star Movement Conte I·II
Marta Cartabia (cropped).jpg Marta Cartabia
(1963– )
13 February 2021 22 October 2022 1 year, 251 days Independent Draghi
Carlo Nordio 2022 (cropped).jpg Carlo Nordio
(1947– )
22 October 2022 Incumbent 1 year, 268 days Brothers of Italy Meloni

Timeline

Kingdom of Italy

Palmiro Togliatti Umberto Tupini Vincenzo Arangio-Ruiz Ettore Casati Gaetano Azzariti Alfredo De Marsico Dino Grandi Arrigo Solmi Pietro De Francisci Alfredo Rocco Aldo Oviglio Giulio Alessio Luigi Rossi Giulio Rodinò Luigi Fera Alfredo Falcioni Ludovico Mortara Luigi Facta Luigi Dari Cesare Fani Vittorio Scialoja Vittorio Emanuele Orlando Nicolò Gallo Ettore Sacchi Scipione Ronchetti Francesco Cocco-Ortu Adeodato Bonasi Camillo Finocchiaro Aprile Emanuele Gianturco Antonio Starabba di Rudinì Giacomo Giuseppe Costa Vincenzo Calenda di Tavani Giacomo Armò Francesco Santamaria-Nicolini Lorenzo Eula Teodorico Bonacci Bruno Chimirri Luigi Ferraris Enrico Pessina Niccolò Ferracciu Bernardino Giannuzzi-Savelli Giuseppe Zanardelli Tommaso Villa Giovanni Battista Varè Diego Tajani Pasquale Stanislao Mancini Paolo Cortese Paolo Onorato Vigliani Michele Pironti Gennaro De Filippo Adriano Mari Sebastiano Tecchio Bettino Ricasoli Francesco Borgatti Giovanni De Falco Paolo Cortese Giuseppe Vacca Giuseppe Pisanelli Raffaele Conforti Filippo Cordova Vincenzo Maria Miglietti Giovanni Battista Cassinis

Italian Republic

Carlo Nordio Marta Cartabia Alfonso Bonafede Andrea Orlando Annamaria Cancellieri Paola Severino Nitto Francesco Palma Angelino Alfano Luigi Scotti Romano Prodi Clemente Mastella Roberto Castelli Piero Fassino Oliviero Diliberto Giovanni Maria Flick Vincenzo Caianiello Lamberto Dini Filippo Mancuso Alfredo Biondi Giovanni Conso Claudio Martelli Giuliano Vassalli Virginio Rognoni Mino Martinazzoli Clelio Darida Adolfo Sarti Tommaso Morlino Francesco Paolo Bonifacio Mario Zagari Emilio Colombo Silvio Gava Oronzo Reale Giacinto Bosco Aldo Moro Michele De Pietro Antonio Azara Guido Gonella Adone Zoli Attilio Piccioni Giuseppe Grassi Fausto Gullo

See also

  • Keeper of the seals
kids search engine
Minister of Justice (Italy) Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia.