Septinsular Republic facts for kids

Quick facts for kids Republic of the Seven United Islands Ἑπτάνησος Πολιτεία  (Greek) Repubblica Settinsulare  (Italian)
1800–1807
Flag Emblem
The Republic's territory extended to the seven main islands plus the smaller islets of the Ionian Sea
Status	Protectorate of the Russian and the Ottoman Empires1
Capital	Corfu
Official languages	Greek Italian
Government	Federal oligarchic assembly-independent republic (de jure until 1806) Federal oligarchic directorial republic (de jure from 1806)
Prince
• 1800–1803	Count Spyridon Georgios Theotokis
• 1803–1807	Count Antonios Komoutos
Historical era	Early modern
• Russo-Ottoman occupation	1799
• Established	2 April [O.S. 21 March] 1800
• 1st constitution	1 November 1800
• 2nd constitution	23 November 1803
• 3rd constitution	27 December 1806 (not implemented)
• Ceded to France	20 August 1807
• British Protectorate	5 November 1815
Currency	Septinsular gazeta
Preceded by Succeeded by First period of French rule in the Ionian Islands Second period of French rule in the Ionian Islands
Today part of	Greece
Formally under Ottoman suzerainty; under the de facto protection of the Russian Empire. According to the 1803 Constitution, the President of the Ionian Senate receives the title of the Prince (Principo, Πρίγκηψ) and is head of state.

The Septinsular Republic (also known as the Republic of the Seven United Islands) was a special kind of government that existed from 1800 to 1807. It was located on the Ionian Islands in Greece, including Corfu, Paxoi, Lefkada, Cephalonia, Ithaca, Zakynthos, and Kythira. This republic was unique because it was the first time Greeks had their own government since the fall of the Byzantine Empire centuries earlier. It was officially under the protection of both the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire, but Russia had more influence. The government was an oligarchic republic, meaning a small group of powerful families held most of the control.

This republic was formed after Russian and Ottoman forces worked together to take the islands from French control. The people on the islands wanted full independence. However, they only received autonomy, meaning they could govern themselves but still had to pay tribute to the Ottoman Sultan. Russia also had a lot of power over them. In 1807, the Republic was given to Napoleon's French Empire. Later, from 1809, the British slowly took over the islands. By 1815, the islands became the United States of the Ionian Islands under British protection.

The Ionian Islands: A Look at Their Past

For many centuries, the Ionian Islands were ruled by Venice (an Italian city-state). This meant they were the only part of the Greek world not taken over by the Ottoman Empire. Because of this, the islands developed a unique culture. They became a bridge between Western Europe and the Greek East, sharing new ideas and cultures.

During Venetian rule, society was divided into three main groups: the wealthy nobles, the middle class (like merchants), and the common people. The nobles owned most of the land and held power. This changed in 1797 when the French took over after Venice fell. The French brought new ideas from the French Revolution. They removed the power of the nobles and promoted equality for all people, regardless of their social class or religion. They also started the first public schools and introduced printing presses to the islands.

However, the French soon became unpopular. The nobles disliked losing their privileges. Many common people also disliked the high taxes and the French government's actions against the church. Because France was expanding its power, the Ottoman and Russian Empires, along with the British, decided to oppose them. In 1798, a combined Russian and Ottoman fleet attacked the French. They successfully removed the French from most islands and captured Corfu in March 1799. At the same time, a powerful Ottoman leader named Ali Pasha of Yanina took control of some mainland towns that had been held by the French.

Forming the Septinsular Republic

After taking control, the Russians first set up temporary governments with nobles and business leaders. But soon, they brought back the old system where nobles had most of the power. On Corfu, the nobles thanked the Russian, Ottoman, and British rulers. However, on Zakynthos, the nobles mainly thanked the British. This showed how much they valued their trade connections with Britain.

In May 1800, it was announced that the Ionian Islands would become one state. This new state would be governed by a Senate located in Corfu. The Senate had representatives from each island. A nobleman named Angelo Orio was chosen to lead the Senate and create a constitution. His proposed constitution gave most power to the nobles and wealthy citizens. It also allowed the Greek language to be used in courts for the first time. The Orthodox Archbishopric of Corfu, a religious leadership position, was also brought back.

The Treaty of Constantinople

Antonios Maria Kapodistrias, a key negotiator for the Septinsular Republic.

In June 1799, a group of twelve delegates from the islands traveled to Istanbul and Saint Petersburg. Their goal was to thank the Ottoman Sultan and the Russian Tsar. They also hoped to get their new state recognized as independent. They wanted to create a constitution and ask for Ali Pasha to leave the mainland areas he had taken. While they were away, Spyridon Georgios Theotokis became the head of the Senate.

In Istanbul, the delegates soon learned that the Ottoman Empire did not want the islands to be fully independent. Instead, they wanted the islands to be a 'vassal state,' meaning they would be under Ottoman control. Two delegates, Antonios Maria Kapodistrias and Nikolaos Gradenigos Sigouros Desyllas, stayed in Istanbul to negotiate. Other delegates went to Saint Petersburg to speak with the Russians. This led to disagreements between the delegates about what kind of government the islands should have.

In April 1800, Russia and the Ottomans signed the Treaty of Constantinople. This treaty created the "Republic of the Seven United Islands." It was the first time Greeks had an autonomous state since the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453. The islands became a single federal state, but each island kept some self-rule. It was an aristocratic republic, meaning powerful families would lead it. The Republic also had to pay an annual tribute to the Ottoman Sultan. This was a disappointment for the islanders, who had hoped for more independence. Russian and Ottoman soldiers stayed on the islands to protect them. However, the mainland towns of Parga, Vonitsa, Preveza, and Butrinto remained under Ottoman control.

The 'Byzantine Constitution'

While in Istanbul, Capodistrias and Sigouros Desyllas created a new constitution and flag for the state. This was called the 'Byzantine Constitution,' likely named after Constantinople (ancient Byzantion). This constitution had 37 articles. It set up an aristocratic federal republic. Each island would have local leaders called syndics, chosen from the noble families. The Senate in Corfu remained the highest power, and its president was the head of state. The constitution was printed in Greek, but it used many Italian words for government terms.

This new constitution was very traditional. It took away many rights that the middle class had gained under French rule. It gave power back to the old noble families. Even the new noble titles given after the French left were removed. The new flag also showed traditional symbols, like the Venetian Lion of Saint Mark. On November 1, 1800, the new constitution and flag were officially approved.

Early Challenges and Unrest (1800–1801)

Ioannis Kapodistrias in 1818, who helped calm unrest on the islands.

On January 13, 1801, the flag of the Septinsular Republic was officially raised in Corfu. However, the new constitution quickly caused problems. It gave too much power to the nobles, which made the common people unhappy. They had enjoyed more rights during the French rule. Local disagreements and power struggles also led to unrest on some islands.

Even before the constitution, there were tensions between different groups. In Zakynthos, there was a plan to harm the nobles in September 1799. Although the plan was not carried out, it showed the deep divisions. The rural population was also restless, leading to strict rules against the lower classes.

Rebellions in Cephalonia

The biggest problems started in Cephalonia. Many middle-class citizens were unhappy with the noble-led government. There were also rivalries between the towns of Argostoli and Lixouri, and between noble families.

In August 1800, an armed group took over the government building in Argostoli. They also damaged the homes of government members. A new government was formed, but the unrest continued. In May 1801, another revolt broke out. To restore peace, officials came to the island to help. They formed a Committee of Public Safety. However, local disagreements made their work difficult. Lixouri even tried to separate from the Argostoli government. Peasants also rebelled, attacking Lixouri.

To bring order, the island's Great Council met in July. They elected new officials, making sure all three main towns had representatives. But this peace did not last. In August, peasants around Lixouri rebelled again, taking over the town.

Unrest in Other Islands

Similar problems happened in Kythira and Lefkada. In Zakynthos, fighting between rival groups continued. In February 1801, Zakynthos even tried to leave the Republic and raised the British flag. This was stopped when Ottoman and British warships arrived in September 1801. Ithaca also had a brief secession movement.

Russian and Ottoman Troops Leave

Even Corfu experienced riots in June 1801, caused by the behavior of Ottoman soldiers. The Senate asked the Ottomans to remove their troops. When the Russians also announced they would leave, the Senate asked them to stay to keep peace. However, on August 25, 1801, both Russian and Ottoman troops officially left the islands.

This made the government weaker. Its strict rules made the middle class and peasants even more upset. The city of Corfu was almost surrounded by angry rural people. Power began to shift to a group of merchants who had connections with the peasants. To deal with the unrest, the Senate gave its president, Theotokis, special powers. But the rebellious groups refused to accept his authority. Instead, they elected their own delegates, forming the 'Honourable Deputation.' This group declared the 1800 constitution invalid and started writing a new, more democratic one.

The 'Honourable Deputation' proposed a constitution that gave more power to a larger council of citizens. This council would be elected by general vote. It also broadened the definition of nobility to include anyone with a certain income, not just old families. On November 28, the 'Honourable Deputation' joined with representatives of the nobility to take over power. The next day, the nobles signed the new constitution.

Foreign Influence and the 1803 Constitution

The new government in Corfu was not popular with the powerful countries that had helped create the Republic. In March 1802, British troops landed on Corfu at the invitation of Theotokis. The Ottomans also wanted the old constitution restored. The rural population was ready to march on Corfu city, but warnings from the Ottomans and the French consul calmed them down.

The situation was still unstable. Russia decided to send its own troops to the islands. They also sent Giorgio Mocenigo, a Russian diplomat, to oversee things. Meanwhile, the Treaty of Amiens officially recognized the Septinsular Republic.

Giorgio Mocenigo's Reforms

Mocenigo arrived in Corfu in September 1802 with Russian ships and soldiers. The proposals from the 'Honourable Deputation' had been rejected. Only the British troops kept its supporters out of Corfu city.

Mocenigo's arrival was welcomed by both sides. Nobles hoped he would support them, while common people hoped he would bring more freedom. Mocenigo immediately began to change the Republic's government. He limited the power of the nobles and the independence of each island. He created a new temporary government on each island, led by a regent from a different island. The existing Senate was dissolved, and Mocenigo appointed a new provisional Senate. This new government quickly stopped any signs of disagreement.

In February 1803, the provisional Senate created new electoral groups called sincliti. Membership was limited by wealth and other rules, keeping power in the hands of a few. These sincliti then elected a 40-member legislative body and a 17-member Senate. Ioannis Kapodistrias was appointed Secretary of State.

The 1803 Constitution

Antonios Komoutos, who became the head of state in 1803.

On December 5, 1803, a new constitution for the Republic was passed. It had 212 articles. It mixed new ideas with rules that kept the state oligarchic. The old noble families were no longer officially recognized, but a new 'constitutional nobility' took their place. This new group, based on wealth or education, formed the voters for the sincliti.

The 1803 Constitution introduced the idea of separation of powers. It also created 'censors' to ensure the constitution was followed. The Senate remained the main executive body. Each island kept its own government, led by a dean or rector. Some positive changes included juries, personal freedoms, and religious tolerance. An important rule (Article 211) stated that after 1810, anyone seeking public office had to know Greek. By 1820, all official documents were to be in Greek.

The new constitution began on December 27. Antonios Komoutos from Zakynthos was elected the new president of the Senate and head of state. The next few months saw many new laws passed about local government, trade, and education. The Republic truly became a proper state. However, the Russians never officially approved this new constitution. Mocenigo, as the Russian representative, remained very powerful. He often bypassed the constitution by creating special committees and a 'Sublime Police' under his control.

Dealing with Ali Pasha and Forming the Greek Legion

The Republic had a difficult relationship with its neighbor, Ali Pasha of Yanina. The Ionian Islands were often a safe place for rebels and outlaws fleeing Ali Pasha's rule on the Greek mainland. These groups sometimes launched attacks from the islands. In return, Ali Pasha bothered the Republic's citizens and charged high fees for their ships in his ports.

During this time, Ali Pasha was fighting against the Souliotes, a group of brave fighters who resisted his power. The Souliotes asked the Septinsular Republic for help and ammunition. Mocenigo secretly gave them some supplies. However, Russia did not want to get involved. In March 1804, many Souliotes had to flee to the Septinsular Republic after Ali Pasha threatened their city. About 3,000 Souliotes settled on the islands, mainly Corfu and Paxoi.

A Souliote warrior in Corfu, with the Old Fortress in the background.

As relations between France and the Ottoman Empire improved, Russia started to create its own military groups to defend the Ionian Islands. They recruited Souliotes, Himariots, and other Greeks into the 'Greek Legion.' This legion fought alongside the British and Russians against the French in Italy and other areas.

The "Russian" Constitution of 1806

Mocenigo played a big role in changing the 1803 constitution. He suggested a 'Decemvirate' to study the changes, and their ideas reflected his own. When representatives for the Constitutional Assembly were chosen in September 1806, Mocenigo made sure his chosen candidates were elected. He even replaced the entire Legislative Council with his own choices. Ioannis Kapodistrias presented the new draft constitution. Despite opposition, it was approved in December.

The new constitution gave power to an 'active nobility,' defined by income and academic titles. This meant some old noble families who had become poor were excluded. A Legislative Senate had law-making power. Executive power was held by a five-member group called the principato. The members rotated leadership, and the president was the head of state for one year. This constitution also removed many of the more progressive parts of the 1803 constitution. Most importantly, it allowed Russia to interfere in the Republic's internal and external affairs. This new 'Russian Constitution' strengthened Russia's influence and made France suspicious.

The End of the Republic

The changing alliances in Europe also affected the Republic. The Ottoman Empire moved closer to France and away from Russia. In January 1807, the Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia. Since the Republic was officially an Ottoman vassal, the Ottomans demanded it join their side against Russia. France also ended its diplomatic relations with the Republic. Under Mocenigo's guidance, the Ionian Senate declared an end to its neutrality towards France in June 1807. This brought the islands into the War of the Fourth Coalition on Russia's side.

Ali Pasha used this situation to try and take the Ionian Islands, with Napoleon's support. In spring 1807, Ali's forces attacked Lefkada. Russian and Souliot troops reinforced the island, and Ali's attack failed. The Senate then decided to create an 'Ionian Encampment' on Lefkada, bringing together all the Republic's forces. They also started building fortifications. Ioannis Kapodistrias was put in charge of this defense. Many Greek fighters from the mainland, including famous leaders like Theodoros Kolokotronis, joined the defense of Lefkada.

Ultimately, the fate of the Septinsular Republic was decided elsewhere. In the Treaty of Tilsit in July 1807, the Ionian Islands were given back to Napoleonic France. On August 20, French troops landed on Corfu. Three days later, General César Berthier took control of the islands from the Russian admiral Dmitry Senyavin. As the Russians left, French troops replaced them on all islands. On September 1, Berthier declared that the Septinsular Republic was now part of France.

What Happened Next: French and British Rule

General François-Xavier Donzelot, a French Governor-General of the Ionian Islands.

Berthier quickly removed the Republic's status as an independent state. The French flag was raised, and all officials swore loyalty to Napoleon. Napoleon was not happy with Berthier's actions and replaced him with General François-Xavier Donzelot. Donzelot's main job was to defend the islands, especially Corfu, from the growing British threat. In November 1807, Napoleon organized the administration of the new French possessions. The internal government of the Republic mostly stayed the same, but it was overseen by a Governor-General and an Imperial Commissioner.

The British responded to the French takeover with a naval blockade. This made trade and supplies difficult for the islands. The hardships, along with the work of British agents, made people dislike the French. Some Ionian captains asked the British commander for help to remove the French. In October 1809, a British force arrived at Zakynthos. They promised to restore the islands' freedom. Because the French garrisons were small, the British quickly occupied Zakynthos, Cephalonia, Ithaca, and Kythira.

The first major military operation was against Lefkada in April 1810. Greek fighters and British soldiers played an important role, and the French surrendered. In May 1810, a pro-British uprising happened on the Paxoi islands, but the French quickly stopped it. The British set up a Governor-General in Zakynthos. Each British-controlled island had its own Governor and local assembly. While these islands returned to normal, French-held Corfu and Paxoi suffered from the British blockade.

Finally, Paxoi was occupied by the British in early 1813. Parga followed in March 1814 after a local uprising. Corfu held out until Napoleon's first defeat. In June 1814, the French surrendered Corfu to the British. The Ionian Senate tried to argue for the islands' independence at the Congress of Vienna. However, the British believed the Republic had ended after the Treaty of Tilsit. In the end, the Ionian Islands became a British protectorate called the "United States of the Ionian Islands." This protectorate lasted until the islands joined the Kingdom of Greece in 1864.

Languages Spoken on the Islands

Because of the long Venetian rule, the Ionian Islands were influenced by Italian language and culture. During the Venetian period, Italian was used for official business. It was also spoken by the upper classes, who often studied in Italian universities. However, most people spoke only Greek. Cephalonia was the only island where more people spoke Venetian as their first language. Italian culture and language remained important among the educated people well into the 1800s. Italian was an official language until 1851.

At first, Italian was the only official language. Then, in 1803, Greek became an official language alongside Italian. The plan was for Greek to completely replace Italian by 1820. The 1800 constitution was printed in Greek, but it used many Italian words for government terms. The 1803 constitution was written in Italian. It stated that the "noble, rich and harmonious Hellenic dialect" (Greek) should become the language of government. However, this did not happen right away due to the French occupation. Greek finally became the only official language of the Ionian Islands in 1852.

Religion on the Islands

The Church of Panagia Mandrakina in Corfu town.

Most people on the Ionian Islands during this time were Christians. There were also a small number of Jewish people on Corfu, Zakynthos, and Cephalonia. The majority of Christians were Eastern Orthodox. However, there were also many Roman Catholics, especially on Corfu, Zakynthos, and Cephalonia. The 1803 Constitution recognized Orthodoxy as the main faith. It also stated that the Roman Catholic faith was recognized and protected. The Constitution also planned for a law to define the rights of Jewish people living in the state.

Images for kids

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  One-gazeta coin of the Septinsular Republic

See also

• List of Greek countries and regions
• Corfiot Italians
• Republic of Venice
• United States of the Ionian Islands