Old Javanese facts for kids

Old Javanese or Kawi (which means poet from the Sanskrit word kavi) is the oldest known form of the Javanese language. People spoke it in the eastern part of what is now Central Java and all of East Java, Indonesia. As a language used for writing and literature, Kawi was important across Java and on the islands of Madura, Bali, and Lombok.

Old Javanese borrowed many words from Sanskrit, an ancient Indian language. However, it didn't have the special "krama" language style that modern Javanese uses when talking to people who are older or have higher social status.

History of Old Javanese

Writing in Java goes back to 450 AD, with Sanskrit inscriptions. But the oldest example written completely in Javanese is the Sukabumi inscription, dated March 25, 804 AD. This inscription, found in Pare in Kediri Regency, East Java, is a copy of an older text. It talks about building a dam for an irrigation canal near the Śrī Hariñjing river. This inscription was the last one to use the Pallava script. After this, all Old Javanese texts were written using the Kawi script.

How Old Javanese Developed

Old Javanese wasn't always the same. It was used for about 500 years, from the Sukabumi inscription until the Majapahit empire was founded in 1292. The Javanese language spoken and written during the Majapahit era had already changed quite a bit, making it closer to the Javanese we hear today.

Austronesian Roots

The most important thing that shaped Old Javanese was its Austronesian background. This means it shared many words, sentence structures, and grammar rules with other languages in Southeast Asia that belong to the same language family.

Sanskrit's Big Influence

The influence of Indian languages on Old Javanese came almost entirely from Sanskrit. There's no real proof of other Indian language elements in Old Javanese, which is different from how Indian languages affected, for example, the Old Malay language.

Sanskrit deeply and permanently changed the words used in Javanese. A big dictionary of Old Javanese, written by Professor P.J. Zoetmulder in 1982, has about 25,500 words. Out of these, at least 12,500 are borrowed from Sanskrit! This huge number shows that ancient Javanese writers knew and used many Sanskrit words in their stories and poems. In fact, about 25% of the words in any Old Javanese literary work come from Sanskrit.

Sounds and Words

Sanskrit also influenced the sounds (phonology) and words of Old Javanese. Old Javanese has certain sounds called retroflex consonants. Some experts think these sounds came from Sanskrit. However, other linguists believe these sounds might have developed on their own within the Austronesian language family.

When Sanskrit words were borrowed into Old Javanese, they usually came as nouns and adjectives in their basic form. Old Javanese texts often have special marks (diacritics) to show different Sanskrit vowels and consonants. But when people spoke Old Javanese, they often ignored these marks. For example, bhaṭāra was pronounced the same as baṭara.

How Old Javanese Influenced Later Works

Medieval poems written in Old Javanese using the Kawi script were still popular in the royal courts of Kartasura, Surakarta, and Yogyakarta. These poems were called layang kawi (Kawi books) or kakawin and were highly respected. From the 18th century onwards, new literature inspired by Old Javanese began to be written using the modern Javanese language and its own poetry styles.

Sounds of Old Javanese (Phonology)

Vowels

Old Javanese had six main vowel sounds: "a", "ĕ" (like the 'a' in 'about'), "e" (like 'e' in 'bed'), "i" (like 'ee' in 'see'), "u" (like 'oo' in 'moon'), and "o" (like 'o' in 'go'). We don't know exactly how Old Javanese was pronounced, but it's thought to be similar to modern Javanese. One key difference is how the "a" sound was pronounced in open syllables (like "wa-na" for forest). In Old Javanese, it was a clear /a/ sound, while in modern Javanese, it's more like 'aw' in 'saw'.

Even though Old Javanese writing sometimes showed "short" and "long" vowels (like ā, ī), these long vowels didn't actually sound different from their short versions. This difference in writing mostly came from Sanskrit words that kept their original spelling.

Consonants

Old Javanese had twenty consonant sounds. Here they are, along with how they were often written in Latin letters: b, c, d, ḍ, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, ñ (sometimes written as ny), ŋ (sometimes written as ng), p, r, s, t, ṭ, w, and y.

Sandhi: When Sounds Change at Word Edges

Sandhi is a fancy word for sound changes that happen when words or parts of words meet. It's like how "do not" can become "don't" in English.

• If a word ends in a vowel and the next word starts with a vowel, they might merge into one sound. For example, dewata + adi could become dewatādi.
• Sometimes, a vowel like "ĕ" would blend with the vowel before it. For instance, wawa (to carry) + ĕn could become wawan (load).
• Similar vowels would combine to form a "long vowel" sound, even if they weren't truly long.
• If the vowel /a/ was followed by /e/ or /i/, it would become /e/. So, bhinna ika became bhinneka (meaning "those are different"). If /a/ was followed by /o/ or /u/, it would become /o/.
• The semi-vowels 'y' or 'w' would replace 'i', 'u', or 'ö' when followed by a different vowel. For example, kadi amṛta became kadyamṛta.

Grammar Basics

Verbs: Action Words

Old Javanese verbs were quite complex. They changed their form by adding different prefixes (at the beginning) or infixes (in the middle) to show who was doing the action, when it happened, and other details.

Active and Passive Voice

• Active Voice: This shows that the subject is doing the action. It was made by adding prefixes like (m)aN- or infixes like -um-.

* For example, amati (to kill) comes from pati (death). Mangan (to eat) comes from pangan (food). * Sometimes, the meaning could change slightly. Anahur meant "to repay," while sumahur meant "to answer," both from sahur (answer, return).

• Passive Voice: This shows that the subject is receiving the action. It was made by adding prefixes like ka- or infixes like -in-.

* For example, kālap (taken) comes from ka- + alap. Inalap (taken) also comes from alap. * In passive sentences, you didn't always need to say who did the action. If you did, you'd use the word de.

Verb Endings for Special Meanings

• Beneficiary or Plural: The endings -i and -an could show that an action was done for someone, or that it involved many things.
• Causative: The ending -akĕn meant "to cause something to happen." For example, "to cause something to disappear."
• Applicative: Prefixes like maka- (active) and pinaka- (passive) were used to show that a verb applied to something in a specific way.

Verb Moods: How Actions Are Seen

• Irrealis Mood: This mood shows something that is not real, or something that might happen. It was often shown by adding the suffix -a to verbs.
• Imperative Mood: This mood is used for commands or requests. There were a few ways to do this:

* Just using the basic form of the verb, like mijil (please come out). This was a polite way. * Removing the verb's prefix. * Adding t(a) or p(a) before the verb.

• Prohibition: To say "do not," the word haywa was used. For example, "haywa ta kita malara!" meant "Don't be sad!"

Nouns and Pronouns

Small Helper Words (Particles)

Old Javanese used several small words called particles. The most common one was ta. Others included pwa, ya, and sira. These particles didn't always have to be used, but they helped connect ideas in sentences.

Personal Pronouns

Old Javanese had words for "I," "you," and "he/she/it." These pronouns didn't usually change for singular or plural, or for social status. However, sira could be used as a respectful term, similar to sang.

These pronouns also had shorter forms called pronominal suffixes, which were added to the end of words to show possession (like "my hand") or who did an action.

These suffixes could also change their form depending on the sound of the word they were attached to. For example, -ku became -ngku after a vowel.

Demonstrative Pronouns: This and That

Old Javanese had four groups of words like "this" and "that." Each group showed different levels of distance from the speaker, and also different levels of emphasis.

Determiners: A, An, The

Old Javanese didn't have words like "a" or "an" (indefinite articles). If a noun didn't have an article, it was considered indefinite. But it did have ways to say "the" (definite articles) and special respectful articles.

• The definite article was (a)ng.
• Respectful articles like si, pun, sang, śrī were used to show respect.
• The word ika could also mean "the" if there was no contrast with "this." It was often combined with the definite article.

Possessive Suffixes

To show possession (like "the word of the teacher"), Old Javanese used suffixes like -(n)ing and -(n)ika. These were formed by combining a small helper word with a definite article.

Adjectives: Describing Words

Old Javanese had two types of adjectives:

• Words that were naturally adjectives, like urip (alive).
• Words made into adjectives by adding the prefix (m)a- to a noun. For example, adoh (far away) came from doh (distance).

Adverbs: Describing Actions

Adverbs describe verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. They usually came before the word they described, except for dahat (very, very much), which came after. The word tan meant "not" and had several forms like tatan or ndatan.

Prepositions: Showing Relationships

Prepositions like "in," "on," "at," "from," and "because of" were used in Old Javanese.

• (r)i meant "in," "on," "at," "to," "for," or "by."
• sa(ng)ka meant "from," "compared to," or "because of."
• To say "inside" or "from inside," Old Javanese used words like jĕro or dalĕm (inner part, depth) combined with a small helper word.

Conjunctions: Joining Words and Sentences

Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clauses. Common ones in Old Javanese included an, yan, and apan.

• an could mean "that," "so that," or "while."
• yan meant "that" or "if/when."
• apan meant "because."

Sentence Structure (Syntax)

In a basic Old Javanese sentence, the action (predicate) usually came first, followed by the person or thing doing the action (subject). A particle like ta often separated these two parts. For example, "lunghā ta sira" meant "he leaves." Old Javanese verbs didn't change their form to show past, present, or future time; you had to understand the time from the context.

Writing System

Old Javanese was written using the Kawi or Old Javanese script from the 8th to the 16th century. Kawi script is a type of Brahmic script found mostly on Java and used across much of Maritime Southeast Asia. It's related to the Pallava script and Kadamba script from South India. Today, Old Javanese can also be written using the Balinese script and Javanese script, which are both descended from Kawi script.

How Old Javanese is Used Today

Spoken Use

Kawi isn't completely gone as a spoken language. It's still used in some traditional Javanese events like wayang golek (wooden puppet shows), wayang wong (human dance-drama), and wayang kulit (shadow puppet plays). It's also used in important parts of Javanese wedding ceremonies, especially for the special meeting rituals between the bride's and groom's parents.

The island of Lombok has even adopted Kawi as its regional language, showing the strong influence from East Java. Today, Kawi is taught in primary schools there as a required second language. Traditionally, Kawi was written on lontar (prepared palm leaves).

Literature

Kawi is still sometimes used as an old-fashioned literary language, similar to how Shakespeare's English is used today.

Many important literary works were written in Kawi. One of the most famous is Empu Tantular's epic poem, "Kakawin Sutasoma". From this poem comes the national motto of Indonesia: "Bhinneka Tunggal Ika". While often translated as "Unity in Diversity," it more accurately means "[although] scattered, remaining [as] one." This refers to the many scattered islands of Indonesia, not just a modern idea of multicultural unity.

A more recent work is the poem "Susila Budhi Dharma" by Muhammad Subuh Sumohadiwidjojo, who founded the spiritual movement Subud. In this poem, he explains the experience of the latihan kejiwaan (spiritual exercise).

Famous Old Javanese Literature

Some well-known poems, epics, and other writings in Kawi include:

• Shivagrha inscription, 856
• Kakawin Ramayana ~ 870
• Kakawin Arjunawiwaha, by mpu Kanwa, ~ 1030
• Kakawin Bharatayuddha, by mpu Sedah and mpu Panuluh, 1157
• Kakawin Nagarakertagama, by mpu Prapanca, 1365
• Kakawin Arjunawijaya, by mpu Tantular
• Kakawin Sutasoma, by mpu Tantular
• Kakawin Siwaratrikalpa, Kakawin Lubdhaka

Important Authors

Here are some notable writers who created literary works in Kawi:

• Mpu Kanwa (11th century)
• Mpu Sedah (12th century)
• Mpu Panuluh (12th century)
• Mpu Tantular (14th century)
• Mpu Prapanca (14th century)

Inscriptions: Written Records

The earliest written records found in Java that use a local language are indeed in Old Javanese.

Some important inscriptions include:

• Karangtengah inscription (824 CE)
• Shivagrha inscription (856 CE)
• Mantyasih inscription (907 CE)
• Mula Malurung inscription (1255)
• Kudadu inscription (1294)

Interestingly, some Old Javanese inscriptions have also been found on the island of Sumatra, showing its wider influence.

Scholars Who Studied Kawi

The first scholar to seriously study Kawi was Wilhelm von Humboldt. He believed it was the origin of all Malay-Polynesian languages. He also corrected the idea that Kawi was completely controlled by Sanskrit, noting that Kawi didn't use verb endings in the same way Sanskrit did. Humboldt also pointed out that Kawi had ways to show past, present, and future times, and different moods for commands or possibilities.

Many other scholars have studied Kawi, including Professor Dr. Petrus Josephus Zoetmulder S.J., who collected a huge amount of original texts and did important research. His student, Father Dr. Ignatius Kuntara Wiryamartana, also contributed a lot. Other notable Indonesian scholars include Poedjawijatna and Mpu Prapanca.

See also

• Bhinneka Tunggal Ika
• Petrus Josephus Zoetmulder
• Old Malay
• Old Sundanese