Al-Malik Al-Ashraf Salāh ad-Dīn Khalil ibn Qalawūn (Arabic: الملك الأشرف صلاح الدين خليل بن قلاوون; born around the 1260s – died 14 December 1293) was an important Mamluk ruler. He was the eighth sultan from the Turkic Bahri group. He became sultan after his father, Qalawun, and ruled from November 1290 until December 1293. Sultan Khalil is best known for winning the siege of Acre in 1291. This victory meant he took over the last areas held by the Crusader states in Palestine. Sadly, his rule ended when he was attacked and killed by his commander, Baydara, and his followers.

Early Life of Al-Ashraf Khalil
Al-Ashraf Khalil's Time as Sultan
Coinage
See also
Images for kids

Early Life of Al-Ashraf Khalil

We don't know the exact year Al-Ashraf Khalil was born. Historians believe he was in his early thirties or younger when he died. His father was Sultan Qalawun, who ruled from 1279 to 1290. His mother's name was Qutqutiya. Khalil had three brothers and two sisters.

In 1284, Khalil married a woman named Ardukin. She was the daughter of a Mongol leader named Sayf ad-Din Nukih ibn Bayan. Her family was chosen because Mongols were seen as important by the Mamluks. Khalil and Ardukin had two daughters, whose names are not known.

Khalil's older brother, as-Salih Ali, was first chosen to be the next sultan in 1280. But when as-Salih Ali passed away in 1288, Al-Ashraf Khalil became the co-sultan with his father. This meant his name was read during prayers, and leaders promised loyalty to him.

Al-Ashraf Khalil's Time as Sultan

Al-Ashraf Khalil became sultan after his father, Qalawun, died in November 1290. He took control of his father's large army of Mamluks, who were powerful soldiers. Khalil also had his own group of Mamluks, mostly from Circassia. He wanted to make sure these powerful groups worked with him.

Soon after he became sultan, there were some power struggles. Khalil had to deal with leaders who challenged him. He made Baydara his chief commander and a very important official. Khalil's rule was marked by changes in who held important positions.

Conquering Acre in 1291

An 1840 painting showing the 1291 Siege of Acre.

Sultan Qalawun had planned to take over the last Crusader strongholds in Syria. He started marching towards Acre, which was the capital of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. But he died before reaching it.

Al-Ashraf Khalil decided to continue his father's plan. In March 1291, he led the Mamluk army from Egypt. He also ordered other Mamluk armies from Syria to join him at Acre. These armies brought large war machines called mangonels. The Mamluk army was much bigger than the Crusader defenders.

In May 1291, Khalil's army attacked Acre. There was fierce fighting, especially against the Knights Templar who defended the fortress. By June 17, the Mamluks captured Acre. Many people tried to escape by sea. Khalil ordered that the remaining defenders and people be executed. After taking a lot of treasure from the city, Khalil had Acre's walls and defenses destroyed.

Taking Other Crusader Fortresses

Remains of the Templar fortress of Atlit, the last Crusader outpost in Syria conquered by al-Ashraf Khalil's forces.

News of Acre's capture spread quickly. Al-Ashraf Khalil entered Damascus with captured Crusader flags and prisoners. He then went to Cairo, where people celebrated his victory.

After Acre, Khalil and his generals quickly took over other Crusader fortresses along the Syrian coast. Within weeks, they captured Tyre, Sidon, Beirut, Haifa, and Tartus. In August, the last Crusader outpost in Syria, the Templar fortress of Atlit, was also taken. Al-Ashraf Khalil returned to Cairo as a great victor.

In 1292, Al-Ashraf Khalil traveled to besiege a castle called Qal'at ar-Rum. This castle was important to the Armenians. Khalil's army used many catapults and captured it after 30 days. He renamed it Qal'at al-Muslimin, meaning "Castle of the Muslims."

The Armenian kingdom of Cilicia also made peace with Khalil. They gave him some of their towns to avoid war. This showed that the Armenian kingdom was becoming weaker, like the Crusader states.

Conflict with the Kingdom of Makuria

After Sultan Qalawun died, the Kingdom of Makuria, which was supposed to pay taxes to Egypt, thought the new Sultan Khalil was weak. Their king, Samamoun, sent a letter saying his treasury was empty and he couldn't pay.

Sultan Khalil was known for his strong will. He sent a threatening letter back to Samamoun. Khalil then ordered the Egyptian army to march to Makuria. The army won a big victory and entered Makuria's capital, Dongola, taking its wealth. King Samamoun had to flee.

Dealing with Venice and Cyprus

In 1292, pirates from Venice kidnapped Egyptian sailors and merchants. This made Al-Ashraf Khalil very angry. He even thought about invading the Republic of Venice. He ordered his navy to arrest any Venetian ships entering Egyptian waters. Venetian ships were seized in Alexandria, and their goods were taken. The Venetian sailors were put in prison.

The Republic of Venice sent a delegation with gifts to meet Sultan Khalil. They denied any connection to the pirates. Khalil insisted that the Venetian prisoners would not be released until the Egyptian sailors returned. Eventually, an agreement was reached. The Venetians paid a large sum of money, promised to hand over the pirates, and return the kidnapped Egyptians. A peace treaty was then signed between Egypt and Venice.

Later in 1292, people from Cyprus also kidnapped Egyptian sailors. Sultan Khalil, known for his pride, immediately ordered 100 large warships to be built to invade Cyprus. He personally oversaw the building of these ships. He often said, "Cyprus... Cyprus... to the grave," meaning he would destroy it. However, he died before he could carry out this invasion.

Facing the Mongol Threat

In 1293, the Mongol ruler Gaykhatu sent a threatening letter to Sultan Al-Ashraf Khalil. Gaykhatu wanted to enter Aleppo, claiming it belonged to his father. He threatened to invade Syria if Khalil refused.

Al-Ashraf Khalil smiled and gave a strong reply. He said he wanted to take Baghdad back for Islam. He told the Mongol messengers that he would invade their country if they didn't agree. He then showed them a huge military parade in Cairo, with thousands of soldiers and war machines. The people of Cairo came out to watch this impressive display.

After the parade, Khalil told the Mongol messengers to tell Gaykhatu that a ruler with such an army would not hesitate to invade any country. He swore to destroy the Mongols' homes and make their land Islamic, unless he died first. He then prepared his armies to invade Baghdad, but his death came too soon.

Future Plans and His End

Al-Ashraf Khalil had big plans for the future. He once said he wanted to conquer Constantinople, Persia, and Iraq. He believed he would rule lands from where the sun sets to where it rises. But he died before he could achieve these goals.

Al-Ashraf Khalil was a strong military leader, like his father. However, many of his important officials, called Emirs, did not like him. He started his rule by punishing and imprisoning some of his father's trusted Emirs. He also continued his father's policy of favoring Circassian Mamluks over Turkish Mamluks, which caused more tension among them.

After his victories, Al-Ashraf Khalil became very proud. He treated the Emirs harshly. His chief minister, Ibn al-Salus, who was not a Mamluk, became very powerful. Many Emirs, especially Baydara, were jealous of Ibn al-Salus.

In December 1293, Al-Ashraf Khalil went on a hunting trip in northern Egypt with Ibn al-Salus, Baydara, and other Emirs. During the trip, Khalil became very angry with Baydara and insulted him. Baydara then gathered some other Emirs, and they decided to act against the Sultan.

On December 14, while the Sultan was walking with a friend, he was attacked and killed by Baydara and his followers. After this, Baydara tried to become the new Sultan. But he was quickly arrested and killed by other Mamluks and Emirs. The Emirs who helped Baydara were also punished or fled.

After Al-Ashraf Khalil's death, his nine-year-old brother, Al-Nasir Muhammad, became the new Sultan. Khalil was buried in a special building called a mausoleum, which he had built in Cairo in 1288. This building is partly in ruins today, but his tomb is still there.

Al-Ashraf Khalil ruled for about three years and two months. He is remembered as the conqueror of Acre. Muslim historians also describe him as a smart sultan who loved to read and learn.

Coinage

The coins made during Al-Ashraf Khalil's rule were special. They had new titles written on them, like "The Sultan King al-Ashraf Salah al-Din, the Promoter of the Muhammadan Nation." They also mentioned his father, Qalawun.

Images for kids

Mausoleum of al-Ashraf Khalil in Cairo, built in 1288

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