Fall of Tenochtitlan facts for kids

Quick facts for kids Fall of Tenochtitlan
Part of the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire
"Conquista de México por Cortés". An Unknown artist, second half of the 17th century. Library of Congress, Washington, DC.
Date May 26 – August 13, 1521 (75 days) Location Tenochtitlan, present-day Mexico City, Mexico Result Tlaxcallan and Spanish victory Fall of the Aztec Empire
Belligerents
Spanish Empire (Governorate of Cuba) Confederacy of Tlaxcala Tetzcoco Otomis Xochimilco Mixquic Iztapalapa	Triple Alliance Tenochtitlan Tlatelolco
Commanders and leaders
Hernán Cortés Gonzalo de Sandoval Pedro de Alvarado Cristóbal de Olid Xicotencatl I Xicotencatl II  Chichimecatecle Ixtlilxochitl II	Cuauhtémoc (POW) Coanacoch (POW)
Strength
200,000 native allies 900–1,300 Spanish infantry 90–100 cavalry 16 cannons 13 lake brigantines	300,000 warriors 400 war canoes
Casualties and losses
450–860 Spanish 20,000 Tlaxcaltecs	100,000 killed in action 300 war canoes sunk At least 40,000 Aztecs civilians killed and captured, other sources claim 100,000 to 240,000 were killed in the campaign overall including warriors and civilians

The Fall of Tenochtitlan was a huge event in the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire. Tenochtitlan was the capital city of the Aztec Empire. This event happened in 1521. It followed a long period where Spanish leader Hernán Cortés used local groups and existing disagreements to his advantage. He was helped by his native friends and his interpreter La Malinche.

Many battles took place between the Aztec Empire and the Spanish-led group. This group was mostly made up of Tlaxcaltec fighters. But it was the attack on Tenochtitlan that directly caused the end of the Aztec civilization. It marked the first major part of the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire. At this time, many Aztecs were dying from a smallpox sickness. This disease killed many of their leaders. The Spanish had been exposed to smallpox for a long time in Europe. So, they were mostly immune and not as affected.

The Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire was a very important step in how Spain took over parts of the Americas. After this victory, Spain gained good access to the Pacific Ocean. This helped the Spanish Empire reach its goal of trading with Asian markets.

Early Events of the Conquest

The Journey to Tenochtitlan

In April 1519, Hernán Cortés landed on the coast of what is now Mexico. He was a Spanish nobleman and led the third Spanish trip to this area. He arrived with 508 soldiers, 100 sailors, and 14 small cannons. Cortés had to fight to keep his leadership role. The Governor of Cuba, Diego Velázquez, tried to remove him twice.

Once in Mexico, Cortés set up a local government. He had himself chosen as the leader. This meant he was only answerable to the King of Spain. He did this when he and his men started the city of Veracruz. This city was near the harbor where they landed.

Cortés landed near Cempoala, a state that was under Aztec rule. The people there had many complaints against the Aztecs. Cortés met several groups who did not like Aztec rule. He told them he was there to make things better, stop human sacrifices, and teach them the true faith. He made sure his army behaved well around these potential allies. Cortés fought some groups, like the Totonac and Tlaxcalan. The Tlaxcalans fought hard for two weeks. But Cortés's smaller army won when the Tlaxcalans finally agreed to his peace offers. A Tlaxcalan leader named Xicotencatl I wanted to join forces with the Spanish against the Aztecs. This was exactly what Cortés wanted.

Many people once thought the Aztecs believed Cortés was Quetzalcoatl. This was a mythical god who was supposed to return to Mexico. It was said he would come in the same year and from the same direction Cortés arrived. But now, many historians think this was a story made up by the conquerors. It might have also been a way for some natives to explain the actions of the Aztec ruler, Moctezuma II. Most experts agree that the Aztecs, especially Moctezuma's close advisors, did not think Cortés was a god. However, messages between Cortés and Moctezuma often mentioned this legend. It was well known and influenced both Aztecs and their subjects.

Moctezuma sent noblemen to meet Cortés. They brought golden jewelry as a gift, which the Spanish liked very much. Moctezuma also ordered his messengers to give Cortés a special headdress of Quetzalcoatl. As news of the strangers reached the capital, Moctezuma became more and more worried. He thought about leaving the city. He seemed to accept what he believed was his people's fate.

Cortés continued his march to Tenochtitlan. On November 8, 1519, Cortés and his soldiers got ready for battle. They put on their armor and arranged themselves in military order. Four horsemen led the way. Behind them were soldiers with swords, lances, crossbows, and muskets. Native allies from Tlaxcalan and other areas also marched with them. These native soldiers wore cotton armor and carried shields and crossbows. Many carried supplies or escorted cannons.

Cortés's army entered the city on a causeway covered with flowers. Moctezuma welcomed Cortés in a friendly way. A captive woman named Malinalli Tenépal, also known as Doña Marina, translated from Nahuatl to Chontal Maya. Another Spaniard, Gerónimo de Aguilar, translated from Chontal Maya to Spanish.

The Spanish soon took Moctezuma hostage on November 14, 1519. This was a safety step because they were greatly outnumbered by the Aztecs. Cortés also learned that more Spanish ships had arrived, sent by his enemy Diego Velázquez. Cortés needed Moctezuma's cooperation to keep control. Moctezuma at first did not want to leave his palace. But after threats from the Spanish and reassurances from Doña Marina, he agreed to move to the Axayácatl palace. Pedro de Alvarado was the first captain to guard him. Other Aztec lords were also held by the Spanish when they questioned Moctezuma's authority. Over 100 Spanish soldiers surrounded the palace to prevent any rescue attempts.

Growing Problems Between Aztecs and Spanish

It is not clear why Moctezuma worked with the Spanish so easily. He might have feared losing his life or power. Cortés also threatened to destroy his beautiful city if there was fighting. Moctezuma wanted to avoid this at all costs. He kept delaying a conflict, which eventually cost him his life. He seemed unsure if Cortés and his men were gods, messengers, or just invaders. He might have thought they had a special role given by fate. He also might have been trying to gather more information or wait for the right time to attack. But he did not act, even though his brother Cuitláhuac and nephew Cacamatzin urged him to.

With Moctezuma as a captive, Cortés felt safer from attacks and supply cuts. He thought he could control the Aztecs through Moctezuma. However, Cortés did not fully understand the Aztec ruling system. Moctezuma was not as powerful as Cortés thought. An Aztec ruler had to be strong and decisive. If he showed weakness, other nobles might replace him. As Moctezuma followed Cortés's orders, like collecting tribute for the Spanish, his power weakened. His people quickly began to turn against him.

Cortés and his army stayed in the Palace of Axayacatl. Tensions kept rising. While the Spanish were in Tenochtitlan, Governor Velázquez sent a large force to capture Cortés. This force had nineteen ships and over 1,400 soldiers. They landed on the coast around April 20, 1520.

Cortés learned of their arrival. He left Pedro de Alvarado in charge of Tenochtitlan with 80 soldiers. Cortés then quickly marched his forces (about 240 men) to meet the new Spanish army. Cortés was able to convince many of the new soldiers to join him. He attacked their camp late at night. His experienced men quickly captured their leader, Pánfilo de Narváez. Cortés then promised Narváez's captains great wealth in Tenochtitlan. This convinced them to follow him back to the Aztec capital. Narváez was imprisoned, and his army joined Cortés's forces.

Relations Worsen Quickly

The Tóxcatl Festival Massacre

Conquistador Pedro de Alvarado.

While Cortés was away, Pedro de Alvarado was in charge in Tenochtitlan with 80 soldiers.

Around this time, the Mexica (Aztecs) prepared for their yearly Tóxcatl festival. It honored the god Tezcatlipoca. Moctezuma had gotten Cortés's permission for the festival. He then confirmed it with Alvarado.

Alvarado was told by Cortés not to start any fights while he was gone. But Alvarado was easily upset. He began asking where the nobles' gold was kept. He questioned priests and nobles and believed the Aztecs were planning a revolt. He could not control the situation. So, he kept Moctezuma more closely guarded.

On the day of the festival, the Aztecs gathered for dances. Alvarado placed 60 of his men and many Tlaxcalan allies around the area. The Aztecs began their Serpent Dance. The joyful dancing and music worried Alvarado. He feared a revolt. He ordered the gates closed and began to kill many Aztec nobles, warriors, and priests.

Alvarado, the Spanish soldiers, and the Tlaxcalans went back to their base in the Palace of Axayacatl. They secured the entrances. Alvarado ordered his men to fire their cannons, crossbows, and muskets into the crowd. This attack either stopped or caused the Aztec revolt. The revolt was likely to happen anyway after Moctezuma was captured. Alvarado forced Moctezuma to speak to the crowd outside the palace. This calmed them for a short time.

The massacre made all the Aztecs turn against the Spanish. It completely destroyed Moctezuma's authority.

Aztec Revolt

Alvarado sent word to Cortés about what happened. Cortés rushed back to Tenochtitlan on June 24. He brought 1,300 soldiers, 96 horses, and many native warriors. Cortés entered the palace safely because fighting had not fully started yet. However, the Aztecs had stopped sending food and supplies to the Spanish. They watched for anyone trying to help the Spanish. Many innocent people were killed because they were thought to be helping. A few days after Cortés arrived, the roads were closed. The bridges on the causeways were raised. The Aztecs stopped any Spanish attacks or attempts to leave the palace. Every Spanish soldier who was not killed was wounded.

Cortés did not fully understand how bad the situation was. The attack on the festival was the final insult for the Aztecs. They were now completely against Moctezuma and the Spanish. Cortés's attack had a high political cost. His new followers were scared by the Aztecs' power. They thought Cortés had lied because no one was bringing them food and gifts as he had promised.

Cortés tried to talk with the Aztecs. When this failed, he sent Moctezuma to tell his people to stop fighting. But the Aztecs refused. The Spanish said Moctezuma was killed by his own people when he tried to speak to them. The Aztecs later claimed the Spanish murdered Moctezuma. Two other local rulers were also found dead. Moctezuma's younger brother, Cuitláhuac, was chosen as the new Aztec ruler.

La Noche Triste: The Sad Night

The Spanish escape from Tenochtitlan was a huge defeat for Cortés. It almost wiped out his army. This event is still known as "La Noche Triste," or "The Night of Sorrows." Stories say Cortés cried under a tree that night after his troops were attacked by the Aztecs.

Cortés first thought he could fight the Aztecs and win the city. But he made three mistakes:

• He underestimated the Aztecs. He had fought other groups and won. But he had never fought a main Aztec army. He did not expect their strong will and fighting skills.
• He overestimated his own forces. He had won battles with fewer men before. But his new soldiers from Narváez's group were not used to local fighting. Many more of them died than his experienced veterans.
• He was not ready for Aztec tactics. The Aztecs knew how to fight in their lake city. They used canoes, fought from rooftops, and destroyed bridges. Spanish cavalry could not work well in these conditions. Control of the water was key, and Cortés did not realize this at first.

With this mindset, Cortés attacked the main temple. Despite strong resistance, the Spanish reached the top of the temple. But they lost many men. Cortés wanted to defeat the Aztecs and hold both Moctezuma and the temple to offer peace again. However, the Spanish attack met such fierce resistance and many deaths that his plan failed. The retreat back to Spanish quarters was as hard as the attack. Part of their quarters was also looted. Losing nearly a hundred men and seeing the fierce Aztec spirit convinced Cortés that escaping at night was his only chance to survive.

Leaving the city would make Cortés look weak to his native allies. But it was either escape or death for the Spanish. Cortés and his men were in the city center. They would likely have to fight their way out no matter what. Cortés wanted to flee to Tlaxcala, which was to the east. But this would need hundreds of canoes to move everyone and their supplies. He could not get them.

So Cortés had to choose one of three land routes. He chose the west causeway to Tlacopan. This was the shortest way out of Tenochtitlan.

Heavy rain and a moonless night helped the Spanish escape. On that "Sad Night," July 1, 1520, the Spanish forces left the palace first. Their native allies followed closely, carrying as much treasure as possible. Cortés hoped to go unnoticed by muffling the horses' hooves and carrying wooden boards to cross canals.

The Spanish forces got through the first three canals. But they were discovered at the fourth canal. One story says a woman getting water saw them. Another says it was a guard. Some Aztecs went in canoes. Others went by road to cut off the Spanish. The Aztecs attacked the fleeing Spanish on the Tlacopan causeway from canoes, shooting arrows. The Spanish fired back, but could not see their attackers or get into formation. Many Spanish soldiers jumped into the water and drowned. They were weighed down by their armor and gold.

When they reached a gap in the causeway, Alvarado made a famous "leap" using a spear to get to the other side. About one-third of the Spanish reached the mainland. The rest died in battle or were captured. Those captured were later sacrificed on Aztec altars. These were mostly Narváez's followers, who were less experienced and carried more gold.

After crossing the bridge, the surviving Spanish had little rest. The Aztecs soon appeared and chased them towards Tlacopan. When they reached Tlacopan, many Spanish and most native warriors had been killed. Most cannons, crossbows, and other weapons were lost. The Spanish later saw their lost weapons being used against them. The Spanish finally found safety in Otancalpolco. The next morning, the Aztecs returned to collect the spoils from the canals.

To reach Tlaxcala, Cortés had to lead his troops around Lake Texcoco. The Spanish were attacked the whole way. But because Cortés took his troops through northern towns, they had an advantage. This area was less populated, and travel was hard. It was also the farming season, so the attacks were not very strong. As Cortés reached more populated areas east of the lake, the attacks became stronger.

Battle of Otumba

Before reaching Tlaxcala, the Spanish army arrived at the plain of Otumba Valley. A huge Aztec army was waiting to destroy them. The Aztecs wanted to stop the Spanish retreat and wipe them out. But the Aztecs made their own mistakes. They did not realize how powerful the Spanish cavalry would be on open plains. They had only seen horses moving slowly on the wet streets of Tenochtitlan. By fighting on an open plain, they allowed the Spanish to use their European fighting skills and weapons.

Even though the Aztecs had huge numbers and the Spanish were tired, Cortés won. He saw the Aztec commander in his fancy feather uniform. Cortés immediately charged him with several horsemen. He killed the Aztec commander and most other leaders, who were easy targets because of their golden feathers. The many Tlaxcalan allies of the Spanish also played a big part in the battle. They used Spanish swords and shields. The Spanish lost some men, but they won against the Aztecs. The Aztecs then retreated, and the cavalry chased them.

When Cortés finally reached Tlaxcala, he had lost many Spanish soldiers and thousands of Tlaxcalans. He also lost Spanish women who had come with Narváez's troops. Cortés claimed fewer losses, but other sources say nearly half the Spanish and almost all the natives were killed or wounded.

Among the women who survived were Cortés's translator La Malinche, and two of Moctezuma's daughters.

Both Sides Recover

Changing Alliances

After Moctezuma's death, Cuitláhuac was chosen as the new emperor. He needed to show his power to keep other states from rebelling. Usually, a new king would lead his army on a campaign before being crowned. This would strengthen his ties with others. But Cuitláhuac could not do this because it was not yet the war season. So, some states thought about joining the Spanish. The Aztec Empire was easy to divide. Most states that paid tribute to the Aztecs were divided inside. Their loyalty was based on their own interests or fear of punishment.

Cortés needed to rebuild his alliances after escaping Tenochtitlan. He started with the Tlaxcalans. Tlaxcala was an independent state and a strong enemy of the Aztecs. Another reason for them to join the Spanish was that Tlaxcala was surrounded by Aztec-controlled areas. The Tlaxcalans could have easily defeated the Spanish or given them to the Aztecs. In fact, the Aztecs offered them peace and wealth if they did. But the Tlaxcalan leaders refused the Aztecs. They chose to continue their friendship with Cortés.

Cortés made a deal with the Tlaxcalans. But they demanded many things from Cortés for their help against the Aztecs. They wanted the Spanish to pay for their supplies. They also wanted the city of Cholula, an equal share of any treasures, the right to build a fort in Tenochtitlan, and to never have to pay tribute in the future. Cortés was willing to promise anything in the name of the King of Spain and agreed. The Spanish soldiers complained about having to pay for food and water with the gold and jewels they had escaped with. After Tenochtitlan fell, the Spanish authorities later ignored this agreement with the Tlaxcalans.

Cortés also needed new allies. If the Spanish could show they could protect their new allies from Aztec revenge, it would be easier for other states to switch sides. After Cortés's forces defeated smaller armies from some Aztec states, Tepeyac, and later, Yauhtepec and Cuauhnahuac, easily joined him. Cortés also used clever political moves to get other states, like Tetzcoco, to join him. He also replaced kings with those he knew would be loyal to him. Cortés now controlled many important towns. This made Cortés's army stronger and the Aztecs weaker.

The largest group of native allies were the Tlaxcalans. But the Huexotzinco, Atlixco, Tliliuhqui-Tepecs, Tetzcocans, Chalca, Alcohua, and Tepanecs were also important allies. All of them had been controlled by the Aztecs before.

Even Tetzcoco, a former member of the Triple Alliance, became a Spanish ally. When the Tetzcocan ruler, Cacamatzin, tried to rebel while Moctezuma was held captive, the Spanish stopped him. Cortés then named one of Cacamatzin's brothers, Ixtlilxóchitl II, as the new ruler. He had always been friendly to the Spanish. Later, Cortés also used Tetzcoco as a base to build his ships. However, some Tetzcocan warriors stayed loyal to the Aztecs.

Cortés also had to deal with problems among his own Spanish troops. Many soldiers just wanted to go home or return to Vera Cruz to wait for more help. Cortés quickly stopped this group. He was determined to finish what he started. He knew that if he failed, he would be seen as a traitor to Spain. But if he succeeded, he would be a hero. So he argued, persuaded, and forced his troops. They began to get ready for the siege of Mexico. Cortés was very good at using the disagreements among the Aztec states. He also hid the problems within his own army.

Smallpox Weakens the Aztecs

While Cortés was rebuilding his alliances and getting more supplies, a smallpox sickness hit the native people in the Valley of Mexico, including Tenochtitlan. The disease was likely brought by a Spanish slave from Narváez's forces. This slave had been left in the capital during the Spanish escape. Smallpox played a very important role in the Spanish victory during the Siege of Tenochtitlan. The disease started in Tenochtitlan in late October 1520. The sickness lasted sixty days, ending by early December.

Records from the Florentine Codex describe the terrible effects of the smallpox on the Aztecs. It said, "many died from this plague, and many others died of hunger. They could not get up and search for food, and everyone else was too sick to care for them, so they starved to death in their beds." The smallpox not only infected the Mexica people, but it also weakened healthy people. They could no longer grow and harvest crops. This led to a huge famine and death from not having enough food. While Tenochtitlan was recovering, the disease spread to Chalco, a city near Lake Texcoco that the Spanish now controlled.

The population growth slowed down. People of child-bearing age either had to fight the Spanish or died from hunger, poor nutrition, or other diseases. Diseases like smallpox could travel far and spread quickly. The Aztecs lost about 50% of their population from smallpox and other diseases. The disease killed about 40% of the native people in the area within a year. The Aztec writings show many pictures of the disease. They called it the huey ahuizotl (great rash).

Cuitláhuac caught the disease and died after ruling for only eighty days. The disease also affected the Spanish allies a little. But it had a much worse effect on the Aztec leaders. They were hit much harder by smallpox than the Spanish leaders, who were mostly immune.

Aztecs Regroup

People often wonder why the Aztecs did not do much against the Spanish after they fled the city. One reason is that Tenochtitlan was in chaos. The smallpox disease was killing many people, including important leaders and nobles. A new king, Cuauhtémoc, was put on the throne in February 1521. The people were mourning the dead and trying to rebuild their damaged city. It is possible the Aztecs truly believed the Spanish were gone for good. Also, Cortés cleverly moved his forces in different directions to surround the Aztec capital. He knew how to use the military advantage he gained after the Battle of Otumba.

Staying inside Tenochtitlan to defend it might have seemed like a good plan. This would allow them to have the largest possible army close to its supplies. It also gave them the advantage of the surrounding lake. Any Spanish attack would have to come across the causeways. There, the Aztecs could easily attack them. Their only victory against the Spanish was won in the city using their special urban fighting tactics. They also expected to keep control of the water. So, it made sense that they wanted to risk their main army only to defend their capital. However, the Aztecs were not just sitting around. They sent many groups to help their allies against Cortés. But they were pushed back every time. Some of the native allies even won their own victories over the Aztecs. Their fear of their powerful rulers faded with each of Cortés's successes.

Siege of Tenochtitlan

Cortés's Plans and Preparations

Cortés's main plan was to trap and surround the Aztecs in their capital. He wanted to do this by gaining more power and movement on the lake. He also wanted to protect his army as they marched on the causeways. This had been a major weakness before. He ordered 13 small ships (brigantines) to be built in Tlaxcala. Cortés kept getting supplies from ships arriving at Vera Cruz. He also received more soldiers and horses from another abandoned Spanish settlement. Many of these extra forces came from other Spanish expeditions that were meant for different leaders but ended up helping Cortés.

Cortés then decided to move his army to Texcoco. There, he could put together and launch his ships into Lake Texcoco. With his main base in Texcoco, he could keep his forces from being spread too thin around the lake. He could also reach them where needed. Xicotencatl I gave Cortés over 10,000 Tlaxcalan warriors. Cortés left Tlaxcala the day after Christmas in 1520. When his army reached Texcoco, seven leaders met him. They said their leader, Coanacotzin, wanted his friendship. Cortés quickly replaced that leader with the son of Nezahualpilli, who was named Don Hernán Cortés.

After winning over Chalco and Tlamanalco, Cortés sent eight Aztec prisoners to Cuauhtémoc. He told Cuauhtémoc that "all the towns in the neighborhood were now on our side, as well as the Tlaxcalans." Cortés planned to block off Mexico City and then destroy it. Once the wood and planks arrived in Texcoco, the ships were built quickly. Cuauhtémoc's forces were defeated four times in March 1521. Cortés also received another ship full of weapons and men from the Emperor.

On April 6, 1521, Cortés met with the local leaders around Chalco. He announced he would "bring peace" and block off Mexico. He wanted all their warriors ready the next day when he put 13 ships into the lake. He was then joined by 20,000 warriors from Chalco, Texcoco, Huejotzingo, and Tlaxcala. Cortés fought a big battle with 17,000 of Cuauhtémoc's warriors at Xochimilco. He then continued his march northwest. Cortés found Coyoacan, Tacuba, Atzcapotzalco, and Cuauhitlan empty.

Returning to Texcoco, which had been guarded by his captain Gonzalo de Sandoval, Cortés was joined by more men from Spain. Cortés then found out about a plot to kill him. He had the main plotter killed. After this, Cortés had a personal guard of six soldiers. The Spanish also held their third auction of branded slaves. These were Mexican allies captured by Cortés who had rebelled after joining the Spanish.

Cortés had 84 horsemen, 194 crossbowmen and musketeers, plus 650 Spanish foot soldiers. He put 25 men on each ship: 12 rowers, 12 crossbowmen and musketeers, and a captain. Each ship had sails, oars, and spare oars. Cortés also had 20,000 warriors from Tlaxcala, Huexotzinco, and Cholula. The Tlaxcalans were led by Xicotencatl II. Cortés was ready to start blocking off Mexico after the Corpus Christi holiday.

Cortés put Alvarado in charge of 30 horsemen, 18 crossbowmen and musketeers, 150 Spanish foot soldiers, and 8,000 Tlaxcalan allies. He sent him to secure Tacuba. Cristóbal de Olid took 30 horsemen, 20 crossbowmen and musketeers, 175 foot soldiers, and 8,000 Tlaxcalan allies to secure Coyohuacan. Gonzalo de Sandoval took 24 horsemen, 14 musketeers and crossbowmen, 150 Spanish foot soldiers, and 8,000 warriors from Chalco and Huexotzingo to secure Ixtlapalapan. Cortés himself commanded the 13 ships. Cortés's forces took these positions on May 22.

The First Battles

The forces under Alvarado and Olid first marched towards Chapultepec. Their goal was to cut off the Aztecs' water supply. There were springs there that provided much of the city's water through an aqueduct. The rest of the city's water came by canoe. The two generals then tried to bring their forces over the causeway at Tlacopan. This led to the Battle of Tlacopan. The Aztec forces managed to push back the Spanish. They stopped this attack on the capital with a strong land and water counterattack.

Cortés faced "more than a thousand canoes" after he launched his 13 ships from Texcoco. But a "favorable breeze sprang up." This allowed him to overturn many canoes and kill or capture many Aztecs. After winning the First Battle on the Lake, Cortés camped with Olid's forces.

The Aztec canoe fleets were good for attacking the Spanish. They allowed the Aztecs to surround the Spanish on both sides of the causeway. Cortés decided to make an opening in the causeway. This way, his ships could help defend his forces from both sides. He then gave his ships to his attacking forces. Four went to Alvarado, six to Olid, and two to Sandoval. After this, the Aztecs could no longer attack from their canoes on the opposite side of the Spanish ships. According to Díaz, "the fighting went very much in our favour."

With his ships, Cortés could also send forces and supplies to areas he could not reach before. This messed up Cuauhtémoc's plan. To make it harder for the Spanish ships to help the soldiers on the causeways, the Aztecs dug deep pits in shallow parts of the lakes. They hoped the Spanish ships would get stuck. They also put hidden stakes in the lake bottom to damage the ships. The Spanish horses were also not effective on the causeways.

Cortés had to change his plans again because his first land attacks did not work. He had planned to attack on the causeways during the day and retreat to camp at night. But the Aztecs would move in and take over the abandoned bridges and barriers as soon as the Spanish left. So, Cortés had his forces stay on the causeways at night to defend their positions. Cortés also ordered his men "never on any account to leave a gap unblocked." He wanted all the horsemen to sleep on the causeway with their horses ready all night. This allowed the Spanish to get closer and closer to the city.

The Spanish stopped food and water from reaching Tenochtitlan along the three causeways. They limited supplies coming into the city from the nine surrounding towns by canoe. They did this by sending two of their ships on nightly capture missions. However, the Aztecs successfully set an ambush with 30 of their canoes. They had placed hidden stakes in the water. They captured two Spanish ships, killing two captains.

The Spanish Advance Closer

After capturing two leaders, Cortés learned of another Aztec plan to ambush his ships with 40 canoes. Cortés then set up a counter-ambush with six of his ships. This was successful, "killing many warriors and taking many prisoners." After this, the Aztecs "did not dare to lay any more ambuscades, or to bring in food and water as openly as before." Lakeside towns, including Iztapalapa, Churubusco, Culuacan, and Mixquic, made peace with the Spanish. The fighting in Tenochtitlan was described as "desperate." Both sides fought fiercely in the streets.

Cuauhtémoc then attacked all three Spanish camps at the same time with his entire army. On the Tacuba Causeway, Pedro de Alvarado made a daring cavalry charge across a gap. As Alvarado and his cavalry came out on the other side, Aztec canoes filled the gap. Pedro de Alvarado was wounded, along with eight men in his camp. Alvarado escaped the ambush. But five of his men were captured and taken to the Great Temple to be sacrificed. To their horror, the Spanish could see their captured friends being sacrificed on the Great Pyramid. This made their hatred of the Aztecs grow. At the end of each day, the Spanish prayed: "Oh, thanks be to God that they did not carry me off today to be sacrificed."

Fighting in the shores of Lake Texcoco during the Battle of Colhuacatonco. The soldier depicted fighting on land is probably Pedro de Alvarado. Codex Azcatitlan.

Cortés then decided to push forward a simultaneous attack towards the Mexican market square. This led to the Battle of Colhuacatonco. However, he forgot to fill in a channel as he advanced. When the Aztecs counter-attacked, Cortés was wounded and almost captured. Two Spanish soldiers gave their lives for Cortés. Sixty-five Spanish soldiers were captured alive. Cuauhtémoc then had some of their heads thrown at the Spanish camps. Ten more were sacrificed to the Aztec gods.

Díaz wrote about the sacrifices: "...the dismal drum of Huichilobos sounded again,...we saw our comrades who had been captured in Cortés' defeat being dragged up the steps to be sacrificed...cutting open their chests, drew out their palpitating hearts which they offered to the idols...the Indian butchers...cut off their arms and legs...then they ate their flesh with a sauce of peppers and tomatoes...throwing their trunks and entrails to the lions and tigers and serpents and snakes." Cuauhtémoc then sent the body parts and skin of the Spanish soldiers to all the allied towns. The Aztecs sacrificed a group of Spanish prisoners every night for ten nights. The Aztecs threw the cooked limbs of their prisoners to the Tlaxcalans. They shouted: "Eat the flesh of these teules ["Gods"] and of your brothers because we are sated with it."

The Aztecs kept attacking the Spanish on the causeways, "day and night." The Spanish allies in the cities around the lake lost many lives or "went home wounded." Half their canoes were destroyed. Yet, "they did not help the Aztec any more, for they loathed them." Of the 24,000 allies, only 200 remained in the three Spanish camps. The rest decided to go home.

Ahuaxpitzactzin (later named Don Carlos), the brother of the Texcoco lord Don Fernando, stayed in Cortés's camp with 40 relatives and friends. The Huejotzinco leader stayed in Sandoval's camp with 50 men. Alvarado's camp had Chichimecatecle and 80 Tlaxcalans. To keep advancing, Cortés destroyed every neighborhood he captured. He used the rubble to fill canals and gaps in the causeways. This allowed his foot soldiers and cavalry to move forward in formation. This fighting tactic helped the Spanish instead of fighting hand-to-hand in the streets, which favored the Aztecs.

Cortés then focused on letting the Aztecs "eat up all the provisions they have" and drink salty water. The Spanish slowly moved forward along the causeways, even without allies. Their ships had freedom of the lake. They found a way to break the impaling stakes the Aztecs had placed for them. After 12 days of this, the Spanish allies realized the Aztec prophecy was false. The prophecy said the Spanish would be dead in ten days. Two thousand warriors returned from Texcoco. Many Tlaxcalan warriors also returned, as did those from Huejotzingo and Cholula. Cuauhtémoc then got his allies in Matlazingo, Malinalco, and Tulapa to attack the Spanish from behind. However, Cortés sent Andrés de Tapia and Gonzalo de Sandoval to help his allies attack this new threat. They returned with two of the Matlazingo leaders as prisoners.

As the Spanish used more successful plans, their hold on Tenochtitlan grew tighter. Hunger began to affect the Aztecs. The Aztecs were cut off from the mainland because the causeways were occupied. Cortés also had the advantage of fighting mostly a defensive battle. Although Cuauhtémoc organized a large attack on Alvarado's forces at Tlacopan, the Aztec forces were pushed back. Throughout the siege, the Aztecs got little help from outside Tenochtitlan. The remaining loyal states had trouble sending forces. This was because it would leave them open to Spanish attack. Many of these loyal states were surrounded by the Spanish.

The loyalty of the other states often changed. But the Spanish tried hard not to lose any allies. They feared a "snowball effect." If one state left, others might follow. So, they harshly crushed any states that tried to send help to Tenochtitlan. Any shipments of food and water were stopped. Even those trying to fish in the lake were attacked. The situation inside the city was terrible. Because of the hunger and smallpox, thousands had already died. Women even offered their children's clothes to the gods, so most children were naked. Many Aztecs drank dirty, salty water because they were so thirsty. This caused them to get sick with dysentery. The hunger was so bad that the Aztecs ate anything, even wood, leather, and bricks, to survive.

The Spanish continued to push closer to Tenochtitlan. The Aztecs changed their tactics as often as the Spanish did. This kept Cortés's forces from winning completely. However, the Aztecs were very worn down. They had no new troops, supplies, food, or water. The Spanish received many supplies from Vera Cruz. Somewhat refreshed, they finally entered the main part of Tenochtitlan.

The Aztecs' Last Stand

Cortés then ordered all three camps to attack the Tlatelolco marketplace at the same time. Alvarado's group got there first. They advanced to the top of the Huichilopotzli cu (temple), setting it on fire and putting up their Spanish flags. Cortés's and Sandoval's men were able to join them there after four more days of fighting.

The Spanish forces and their allies moved into the city. The Aztecs caused many deaths, but they could not stop the Spanish advance. While the fighting raged, the Aztecs cut out and ate the hearts of 70 Spanish prisoners of war at the altar to Huitzilopochtli. By August, many native people had fled Tlatelolco. Cortés sent messengers to talk with the Tlatelolcas to join his side. But the Tlatelolcas stayed loyal to the Aztecs. Throughout the siege, the Tlaxcalans fought very harshly against the Aztecs. The Aztecs had controlled them for a hundred years. The Tlaxcalans had been forced to give young men and women each year to be sacrificed and eaten. Now, the Tlaxcalans saw their chance for revenge. Historian Charles Robinson wrote: "Centuries of hate and the basic viciousness of Mesoamerican warfare combined in violence that appalled Cortés himself." In a letter to the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, Cortés wrote: "We had more trouble in preventing our allies from killing with such cruelty than we had in fighting the enemy. For no race, however savage, has ever practiced such fierce and unnatural cruelty as the natives of these parts. Our allies also took many spoils that day, which we were unable to prevent, as they numbered more than 150,000 and we Spaniards only some nine hundred. Neither our precautions nor our warnings could stop their looting, though we did all we could...I had posted Spaniards in every street, so that when the people began to come out [to surrender] they might prevent our allies from killing those wretched people, whose numbers was uncountable. I also told the captains of our allies that on no account should any of those people be slain; but there were so many that we could not prevent more than fifteen thousand being killed and sacrificed [by the Tlaxcalans] that day".

Throughout the battles with the Spanish, the Aztecs still performed their traditional ceremonies. A warrior was chosen to wear a special quetzal owl costume. He was given sacred darts. When he appeared, the Spanish soldiers seemed scared. They chased the owl-warrior, but he was not captured or killed. The Aztecs saw this as a good sign. But they could fight no more. After talks with the nobles, Cuauhtémoc began discussions with the Spanish.

At some point in the final days of the battle, a tornado hit the area over Tlatelolco. It then moved out over the lake. This was the first tornado Europeans had seen in the Americas.

After several failed attempts to make peace with Cuauhtémoc, Cortés ordered Sandoval to attack the part of the city where Cuauhtémoc had retreated. Hundreds of canoes filled the lake, fleeing the doomed city. Cortés sent his ships to stop them. Cuauhtémoc tried to escape with his belongings, gold, jewels, and family in 50 canoes. But he was soon captured by Sandoval's ships and brought before Cortés.

Surrender and Aftermath

The Aztec forces were defeated. The Aztecs surrendered on August 13, 1521. Cortés demanded the return of the gold lost during La Noche Triste. Under questioning, Cuauhtémoc and the lord of Tacuba said they had dumped their gold and jewels into the lake. But little gold was found. Earlier, a fifth had been sent to Spain, and Cortés kept some. In the end, the remaining gold went to the King's officials.

Cuauhtémoc was taken prisoner that same day. He remained the official leader of Tenochtitlan, under Cortés's control. He was later executed in 1525 for treason. This happened while he was with a Spanish trip to Guatemala.

Casualties and Consequences

Between 100,000 and 240,000 people were killed in the entire campaign. This includes both warriors and civilians. As many as 40,000 Aztec bodies were floating in the canals or waiting to be buried after the siege. Almost all of the Aztec noble families were dead. The remaining survivors were mostly young women and very young children. At least 40,000 Aztec civilians were killed or captured.

After Tenochtitlan fell, the remaining Aztec warriors and civilians fled the city. The Spanish allies, mainly the Tlaxcalans, continued to attack even after the surrender. They killed thousands of the remaining civilians and looted the city. The Tlaxcalans did not spare women or children. They entered houses, stealing everything valuable and killing women and children. The survivors walked out of the city for the next three days. One source says 6,000 people were killed in the town of Ixtapalapa alone. Because of the widespread killing and the destruction of Aztec culture, some sources have compared the siege to a genocide.

Some reports say as few as 40 Spanish soldiers died in the siege. But thousands of Tlaxcalans died. It is thought that about 1,800 Spanish soldiers died from all causes during the two-year campaign. The remaining Spanish forces included 800-900 Spaniards, 80 horses, 16 cannons, and Cortés's 13 ships. Other sources estimate that about 860 Spanish soldiers and 20,000 Tlaxcalan warriors were killed in all the battles in this region from 1519 to 1521.

It is widely agreed that Cortés's native allies were essential to his success. There may have been as many as 200,000 of them over the three years of the conquest.

Images for kids

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  Fighting in the shores of Lake Texcoco during the Battle of Colhuacatonco. The soldier depicted fighting on land is probably Pedro de Alvarado. Codex Azcatitlan.

See also

In Spanish: Sitio de Tenochtitlan para niños