Historiography of the War of 1812 facts for kids
The War of 1812 was a conflict between the United States and Great Britain, along with their allies, from 1812 to 1815. Even today, people disagree about who truly won the war. Historians and people in different countries have different ideas about the outcome.
Great Britain was very busy fighting Napoleon Bonaparte in Europe at the time. They saw the War of 1812 as a small side conflict. They had big victories like the Battle of Trafalgar and Battle of Waterloo. These wins helped start a long period of British peace and power called the Pax Britannica.
In the United States and Canada, the war became a source of national pride. Canadians felt they successfully defended their land from American invasion. This helped them feel like a distinct nation. Americans believed they protected their country's independence. They also felt they stopped the British from forcing American sailors into the British navy. Many Americans saw it as a "Second War of Independence." Sadly, Indigenous nations generally lost a lot in this war.
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Who Won the War of 1812?
People in the United States and Canada both widely believed their own country won the war. Each young country saw their victory as important for building their nation. The British, busy with Napoleon, paid little attention to this smaller conflict.
Many Canadians believe that Britain and Canada won, and the U.S. lost. In the United States, many people think America won. Some historians, like Donald Hickey, say the war ended in a draw. But he notes that most Americans still think they won. Claire Turenner Solander says Canadians feel united and distinct from the U.S. because they believe they won. The American victory at New Orleans didn't change the war's outcome. But it made Americans feel like they had won a military victory.
American Views on the War
Americans remember the British burning Washington D.C. in 1814. But they focus more on victories at Baltimore, Plattsburgh, and New Orleans. These wins made Americans feel they had defended their national honor. They called it the "second war of independence." President James Madison even said the war was a complete American victory in 1815.
This idea of an American victory became the main view in the U.S. The Niles Register newspaper said Americans had "dictated" the peace treaty. A few Americans, mostly Federalists, thought the war was a mistake. They wondered why Britain didn't give up Canada if America had "dictated" the treaty. But this was not the popular view. Most Americans agreed with Congressman George Troup. He called the Treaty of Ghent "the glorious termination of the most glorious war ever waged."
Americans also celebrated the defense of Fort McHenry in 1814. This event inspired the song The Star-Spangled Banner, which became the U.S. national anthem. U.S. Navy captains became heroes. People bought plates with pictures of heroes like Decatur and Charles Stewart. Many of these plates were even made in England. The navy became very popular for its surprising victories. The United States Marines also gained a reputation as skilled marksmen.
Canadian Views on the War
In Upper Canada, Loyalists saw the War of 1812 as a victory. They had successfully defended their land from American takeover. Because Canadian militias helped in battles like Chateauguay, many Canadians believed they didn't need a professional army. However, it was mostly regular British Army units that truly defended Canada.
The U.S. Army tried to invade Canada many times. But Canadians defended their territory. The British knew that Canada was not very populated. They worried it would be vulnerable in another war. So, the Rideau Canal was later built to help defend Canada.
By the 21st century, the war was mostly forgotten in Britain. But it was still remembered in Canada, especially in Ontario. A 2009 poll showed that 37% of Canadians thought the war was a Canadian victory. Only 9% thought the U.S. won, and 15% called it a draw. A 2012 poll found that 25% of Canadians felt that Canada successfully stopping the American invasion helped define their identity.
Historians' Views on the War
Many historians agree that the war ended in a draw or stalemate. The Treaty of Ghent ended the fighting when neither side was clearly winning. Neither country wanted to keep fighting. The main reasons for the war had also disappeared.
Historians often say that all three nations—Britain, Canada, and the United States—were "real winners." This is because the war led to two centuries of peace between them. Historians also believe the war could have been avoided with better diplomacy. They see it as a mistake, with many failures on both sides. This includes American failures to take Canada and British failures at New Orleans and upstate New York.
Since there was no clear winner, historians have debated the outcome for nearly 200 years. Most historians agree it was a draw. But there are many different ideas. Textbooks show that historians emphasize different parts of the war based on their country's story. Some British texts barely mention the war.
Donald Hickey says a common idea is that "everyone was happy." Americans thought they won, Canadians knew they won, and the British forgot about it quickly. For the British, returning to how things were before the war was a triumph. It showed they could defeat Napoleon and still defend North America. Historians who say both sides won argue that they achieved their main goals. Britain defeated Napoleon and ruled the seas. The U.S. regained its independence and honor, and opened the way for westward expansion.
Some historians believe it was a British victory and an American defeat. They argue that Britain achieved its goals by stopping American invasions of Canada. The U.S. failed to take any part of Canada. Also, the U.S. failed to stop impressment. Britain didn't stop impressment until the Napoleonic Wars ended. Brian Arthur says it was a British victory because their naval blockade hurt the U.S. economy.
Troy Bickham, another historian, says Britain was in a much stronger position. He notes that Britain, even while fighting Napoleon, easily defeated American invasions of Canada. The British Navy was also much stronger. It blockaded the U.S. coast and attacked towns, including Washington D.C. Yet, Britain offered generous peace terms in late 1814. Bickham thinks this was because the British government feared its people were tired of war and taxes. He also says it was a British victory because the U.S. did not achieve its war goals.
Carl Benn says Britain's main goal of keeping Canada was met. Americans realized they couldn't achieve their goals. So, they accepted returning to how things were before the war. Andrew Lambert says Americans began to rewrite the war as a victory. They used the unclear peace treaty to make it seem like a win. Jon Latimer agrees it was a British victory because Britain got what it wanted. The U.S. achieved none of its war aims.
However, G. M. Trevelyan saw the war negatively for Britain. He said it damaged the "special relationship" between Britain and the U.S. He felt the war was fought for nothing, except that Canada gained a strong national identity. He also said the war gave anti-British feelings in the U.S. a "fresh lease of life."
Historians who believe it was an American success say the U.S. wanted to restore its honor. They felt Britain was constantly attacking American rights at sea and in the west. Donald Hickey says the war "vindicated U.S. sovereignty." Historians also argue that the U.S. succeeded in ending the threat of Indigenous raids. This opened the way for westward expansion. Winston Churchill said the U.S. was "never again refused proper treatment as an independent power."
George C. Daughan argues that the U.S. achieved enough goals to claim victory. He says President Madison told his peace delegates to ignore maritime law issues. These issues were no longer important after Europe was at peace. Daughan believes the British permanently stopped impressing Americans. The successful defense of Baltimore, Plattsburgh, and Fort Erie also helped the American negotiators. The Duke of Wellington even wrote that Britain had no right to demand land from America. He noted that Britain hadn't been able to conquer American territory. Daughan says the idea that the U.S. failed to capture Canadian territory is outdated.
David Mills argues that the "militia myth" of Canadian victory was created later by powerful groups in Upper Canada. Many people in Upper Canada were economic migrants from the U.S. They didn't care who won. After the war, these powerful groups took away voting rights from many residents. They used the idea of "loyalty" to stop people from disagreeing. Mills says this myth was created for new immigrants. American spelling, once common, was replaced by British spelling. Local people began to call themselves Canadians.
Indigenous Nations as Losers
Historians generally agree that Indigenous nations were the true losers of the War of 1812. They suffered the most casualties compared to their population. Worse, they were left without strong European allies in North America. Their defeats at the Thames and Horseshoe Bend left them helpless against the Americans. This led to them being forced onto reservations and losing their traditional way of life.
Indigenous nations in the Old Northwest hoped to create their own state under British protection. American settlers had faced threats from Indigenous raids before 1812. But these threats ended after the war. By 1813, Americans had killed Tecumseh and broken his group of tribes. Andrew Jackson then defeated the Creek in the Southwest. The American victory in the Old Northwest meant Britain couldn't insist on an Indigenous state during peace talks.
British commanders like Isaac Brock supported their Indigenous allies. But politicians in London broke their promises. Making peace was more important to them. At the peace conference, the British asked for an independent Indigenous state. But American diplomats refused. The British did not push the issue, abandoning their allies. This left Indigenous nations vulnerable. Most tribes were later forced to move to Indian Territory (now Oklahoma). Historian Alan Taylor says the victory at New Orleans had "enduring and massive consequences." It gave Americans "continental predominance" and left Indigenous nations powerless.
The Treaty of Ghent said the U.S. should return all lands and rights to Indigenous tribes that they had in 1811. But the United States ignored this. They continued to expand into these territories. Britain did not want another war to enforce the treaty. Henry Goulburn, a British negotiator, was shocked. He said he had no idea how determined Americans were to remove Indigenous people and take their land.
The Creek War ended with the Treaty of Fort Jackson. The Creek nation lost about half of their land to the U.S. without payment. This treaty should have been invalid under the Treaty of Ghent. But Britain did not push the issue. Without British support, the Indigenous nations were powerless. This set the stage for more American land grabs in the future.
 | Janet Taylor Pickett |
 | Synthia Saint James |
 | Howardena Pindell |
 | Faith Ringgold |
