History of Joseon facts for kids

The Joseon dynasty was a powerful kingdom that ruled Korea for a very long time, from 1392 to 1897. It was one of the longest-lasting dynasties in Korean history. During this period, Korea saw many important changes, including the creation of its own alphabet, Hangul.

The history of Joseon is often looked at in two main parts: an early period and a later period. The big event that separates these two times was the Imjin War (1592–1598). The royal records from the entire Joseon period, up to 1910, are now kept at the National Museum of the Annals of the Joseon Dynasty in Pyeongchang, which opened in the autumn of 2023.

How the Joseon Dynasty Began

By the late 1300s, the Goryeo dynasty, which had ruled for about 400 years, was becoming very weak. Years of war and influence from the Mongol Empire had taken their toll. Inside the royal court, there were many disagreements about who should rule. Powerful nobles and generals fought for control.

Two important generals were Yi Sŏng-gye and Ch'oe Yŏng. They were skilled at defending Korea from Japanese pirates and other invaders. At this time, China was also changing, with the new Ming dynasty rising. General Yi Seong-gye believed it was better to side with the powerful Ming dynasty.

In 1388, General Ch'oe Yŏng wanted to invade a northern territory. General Yi Seong-gye was chosen to lead this invasion. However, at Wihwa Island, he decided to turn his army back to the capital. He then removed General Ch'oe and his supporters from power.

Yi Seong-gye then led a coup d'état, which is a sudden takeover of the government. He removed the current king and later placed another royal, King Gongyang, on the throne. Yi Seong-gye worked with a group of reform-minded scholars. One of his first actions was to take land from wealthy nobles and give it to his supporters. In 1392, after removing a key opponent, Yi Seong-gye became king himself. This marked the end of the Goryeo dynasty and the beginning of Joseon.

Building a New Kingdom: Joseon's Early Years

King Taejo's portrait

When Yi Seong-gye became king, he was known as King Taejo. At first, he thought about keeping the name Goryeo for the country. However, his advisors believed a new name was needed to show the big change in leadership. So, in 1393, he declared a new dynasty called the Kingdom of Great Joseon. This name was chosen to honor an older kingdom.

The new government also had to decide what to do with the remaining members of the old Goryeo royal family. To prevent any challenges to his rule, King Taejo and his officials decided to end their influence. The remaining members of the former royal family were gathered and sent away, ensuring they could not cause trouble for the new dynasty.

The new dynasty also needed a new capital city. It was a tradition in Korea for new dynasties to move their capitals, as this was thought to bring good fortune. After looking at a few places, King Taejo chose Hanyang, which is now Seoul. Hanyang was a great choice because it was easy to reach by land and sea. It was also in the center of the Korean Peninsula and had good natural defenses with mountains.

In 1394, Hanyang was officially named the new capital, Hanseong. Construction began on the city, including its main palace, Gyeongbok Palace, which was finished in 1395. Other palaces and important buildings were also built, and the capital was completed by the early 1400s.

Early Challenges and Power Struggles

Gyeonghuigung Palace

King Taejo had several sons, and deciding who would be the next king was a big challenge. His fifth son, Yi Pang-wŏn, had helped him greatly to become king. However, there was a lot of tension between Yi Pang-wŏn and some of his father's key advisors.

Eventually, King Taejo chose his eighth son, Yi Pang-sŏk, as the heir. This decision led to a major conflict known as the First Strife of Princes. In 1398, Yi Pang-wŏn took action, eliminating his rivals and the two sons of King Taejo's second wife.

King Taejo was very upset by these events and soon stepped down from the throne. His second son, Yi Pang-gwa, became the new king. King Jeongjong moved the capital back to an older city, Kaesong. However, Yi Pang-wŏn still sought to become king.

In 1400, another conflict, the Second Strife of Princes, broke out between Yi Pang-wŏn and his fourth brother, Yi Pang-gan. Yi Pang-wŏn won this struggle, and his brother was sent away. King Jeongjong then made Yi Pang-wŏn his successor and soon stepped down. That same year, Yi Pang-wŏn became King Taejong. In 1401, the Joseon Dynasty officially established a friendly relationship with the Ming dynasty of China.

King Taejong faced a challenge when his father, King Taejo, refused to give him the royal seal, which showed he was the rightful ruler. King Taejong sent messengers to his father, but they did not return, showing King Taejo's anger. This event is still remembered in Korean culture.

Strengthening the Kingdom

King Taejong worked hard to prove his ability to rule. One of his first important actions was to stop powerful government officials and nobles from having their own private armies. This greatly increased the number of soldiers in the national army and made it harder for anyone to start a large rebellion.

King Taejong also improved how the government collected taxes and kept records of its people. In 1405, he investigated land ownership, which helped find hidden lands and doubled the national income. In 1413, he ordered the first population survey, requiring all Korean men over 16 to carry wooden tablets with their names and birth dates. This system helped with military service and is seen as an early form of identification.

He also changed the government structure, giving the king more power in decision-making. He created a new office, the Sinmun Office, where people could report if they felt they had been treated unfairly by officials.

In 1418, King Taejong stepped down, and his son Sejong became king. However, Taejong continued to advise on military matters until his passing in 1422. King Sejong was a very skilled leader. In 1419, he launched a military expedition against Japanese pirates operating from Tsushima Island. This led to a treaty in 1443 that allowed limited trade in exchange for tribute and help in stopping pirate raids.

On the northern border, King Sejong built forts and posts to protect his people from northern tribes. In 1433, his general, Kim Chongsŏ, led a successful campaign that pushed north and secured Korea's current northern border.

During King Sejong's rule, Korea made amazing progress in science, farming, literature, and medicine. He is known as "King Sejong the Great." His most famous achievement was creating Hangul, the Korean alphabet, in 1443. Before Hangul, Koreans used Chinese characters, which were difficult for many people to learn. Hangul made reading and writing much easier for everyone.

Challenges to the Throne

After King Sejong, his son Munjong became king but sadly passed away from illness in 1452. Munjong's young son, Danjong, became king at just 12 years old. However, Danjong's uncle, Sejo, took control of the government and became the seventh king in 1455.

Some ministers who were loyal to young King Danjong tried to restore him to the throne. However, their plan was discovered. Sejo removed these six ministers from power and ended Danjong's life while he was in exile. Despite how he came to power, King Sejo proved to be a capable ruler. He improved the government system, helped the economy, and encouraged the publishing of books. He also created the Grand Code for State Administration, which became an important set of laws for the dynasty.

Sejo's son, Yejong, became the eighth king but passed away two years later. Yejong's nephew, Seongjong, then took the throne. His reign was a time of growth and prosperity. He encouraged new scholars, called Sarim, to join the government. He also established the Hongmun'gwan, a royal library and advisory council. Seongjong's time was a cultural golden age, similar to King Sejong's, with many books published.

Difficult Times and Political Divisions

Seongjong's son, Yeonsangun, became king, but his rule was very harsh. He is often considered one of the most challenging rulers of Joseon. His behavior became difficult after he learned about the sad fate of his biological mother, who had been removed from her position. He punished many scholars and officials who he believed were involved in his mother's past. He also made unpopular decisions, like taking over the Royal University for his own enjoyment and banning the use of Hangul when commoners used it to criticize him.

After twelve years, Yeonsangun was removed from power in a coup. His half-brother, Jungjong, became king in 1506. King Jungjong was influenced by his minister, Cho Kwangjo, a charismatic leader of the Sarim scholars. Cho Kwangjo introduced important reforms, such as a local self-government system and efforts to reduce the gap between rich and poor. He also promoted Confucian teachings.

However, these radical reforms were not popular with all officials, especially those who had helped Jungjong become king. They plotted against Cho Kwangjo, making the king doubt his loyalty. As a result, Cho Kwangjo was removed from his position and lost his life, and many of his reforms ended with him. For many years afterward, politics in the court were filled with struggles between different groups and powerful in-law families.

Political Groups and Conflicts

Throughout the Joseon era, different groups of officials, called factions, often disagreed on how the country should be run. These groups struggled for power. For example, the Sarim faction, which had faced challenges earlier, gained control under King Seonjo. However, they soon split into new groups, like the Western and Eastern factions, and these split further.

Changes in power between these factions were often intense. Sometimes, people were accused of serious crimes, and many faced severe consequences, including exile from the capital. One example was the Gichuk Treason Case in 1589, where a scholar named Jeong Yeo-rip was accused of planning a rebellion. This led to many Eastern faction members being removed from their positions or sent away.

Later, during the reigns of Kings Yeongjo and Jeongjo in the 1700s, the kings tried to treat all factions equally to bring stability. However, in the 1800s, powerful families related to the royal family through marriage began to have a lot of influence. Eventually, these factional struggles began to fade away by the end of the 19th century.

Japanese Invasions and Their Impact

The Turtle ship. The historical existence of the ironclad roof is disputed.

Before the major invasions, Japanese pirates often attacked Korea. The Korean navy was skilled at defending the coasts, using advanced gunpowder weapons like cannons and fire arrows.

From 1592 to 1598, Japan launched large-scale invasions of Korea, known as the Imjin War. The Japanese warlord Toyotomi Hideyoshi wanted to conquer China and saw Korea as a path. Joseon was not well prepared due to internal disagreements. The Japanese, using European firearms, quickly occupied much of the southern part of the peninsula, capturing important cities like Pyongyang and Hanseong (Seoul). During this time, some people who were not free joined the Japanese forces and caused damage, including burning down parts of Gyeongbokgung Palace.

However, local resistance groups and decisive naval victories by Admiral Yi Sun-sin greatly slowed the Japanese advance. Admiral Yi's famous Turtle ships were very effective in controlling the sea routes, which cut off Japanese supply lines. Also, Ming China sent a large army to help Korea push back the Japanese.

The Joseon and Ming forces eventually defeated the Japanese, who retreated to their homeland. But the victory came at a very high cost. Farmlands were destroyed, villages were burned, and many people suffered. Many skilled workers, like potters and craftsmen, were taken to Japan or lost their lives. The Japanese also took many historical books and treasures from Korea.

In 1598, as the Japanese forces withdrew after Hideyoshi's passing, Admiral Yi Sun-sin led a final pursuit but tragically lost his life in the Battle of Noryang. The war had a lasting impact, reducing Korea's farmland and suspending relations with Japan for a time. Later, relations were slowly restored, and some Korean captives were released.

Manchu Invasions and Isolation

After the Japanese invasions, Korea became more focused on keeping itself separate from other countries, a policy called isolationism. At the same time, the Ming dynasty in China became weaker, and a new dynasty, the Qing dynasty, was established by the Manchus. Korea decided to strengthen its borders and limit contact with outsiders.

Despite this, Korea still had some trade with its neighbors like Mongolia, China, and Japan, though trade with Japan was often carefully controlled to prevent piracy.

Korea was invaded twice by the Manchus, first in 1627 and again in 1637. After these invasions, Korea surrendered to the Manchus and became a tributary state of the Qing dynasty, meaning it sent gifts and recognized the Qing's authority, while also engaging in trade.

The Later Joseon Period: Revival and Challenges

Hwaseong Fortress in Suwon.

After the Manchu invasions, Joseon enjoyed a long period of peace for nearly 200 years. Kings Yeongjo and Jeongjo led a time of revival for the dynasty. They worked to solve problems caused by political disagreements.

King Jeongjo, Yeongjo's grandson, made many reforms. He established the Kyujanggak, a royal library, to improve culture and politics and find talented officials. He also opened government positions to people who might have been excluded before, regardless of their social status. His reign saw a flourishing of popular culture.

However, the 19th century brought new difficulties. Droughts and floods caused severe famines, and rulers increased taxes on struggling farmers. This led to widespread anger and violent uprisings. In 1812, Hong Gyeong-nae led a peasant rebellion in northern Korea. Later, in 1862, farmers in Jinju also rose up against corrupt officials and wealthy landowners.

During this time, a new belief system called Donghak (Eastern learning) was founded by Choe Je-u. It became a movement that involved peasants forming groups to challenge the government. Roman Catholicism also arrived in Korea, but it faced strong opposition and challenges from the government until the late 1880s.

In 1863, King Gojong took the throne. His father, Regent Heungseon Daewongun, ruled for him until Gojong was old enough. Daewongun strongly supported isolationism and challenged the spread of Catholicism, which led to conflicts with Western powers. He also worked to restore the grand Gyeongbok Palace. During his time, the old factional politics began to disappear.

In 1873, King Gojong began his direct rule. His wife, Queen Min (later called Empress Myeongseong), gained significant influence in the court.

Encounters with Western Powers

Korea's isolationist policy meant it had few dealings with Western countries. However, this changed in the mid-1800s.

In 1866, France launched a military campaign against Korea, known as Byeonginyangyo. This happened because the Korean government disagreed with the activities of French priests in Korea. French forces occupied Ganghwa Island, but after nearly six weeks, they retreated. This encounter strengthened Korea's resolve to remain isolated for another decade.

In 1871, the United States also sent an expedition to Korea, known as Sinmiyangyo. Their goals were to establish trade, find out what happened to an American merchant ship, and ensure help for shipwrecked sailors. However, misunderstandings between the conservative Korean government and the assertive Americans led to armed conflict, mainly around Ganghwa Island. The U.S. forces won a small military victory, but Korea still refused to open its doors, and the U.S. did not achieve its diplomatic goals.

In 1875, a small Japanese warship, the Un'yō, surveyed Korean waters without permission and attacked a Korean port. Japan then used this incident to demand a treaty. The Treaty of Ganghwa was signed, which was the first "unequal treaty" for Korea. It gave special rights to Japanese citizens in Korea, forced Korea to open three ports for trade, and declared Korea's independence from China in foreign relations.

The Decline of Joseon

An early version of the Korean flag.

In the late 19th century, tensions grew between Qing China and Japan, leading to the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895), much of which was fought on the Korean Peninsula. Japan, which had adopted Western military technology, had already forced Joseon to sign the Treaty of Ganghwa in 1876. Japan began to seek resources in Korea and established a strong economic presence, marking the start of its expansion in East Asia.

Internal Unrest and Coups

As the dynasty faced challenges, the king started to rely on newer, rifle-equipped armies. This meant the older army, using spears and old muskets, received less pay, leading to their revolt. Regent Heungseon Daewongun was briefly restored to power but was soon taken to China by Chinese troops.

In 1884, a group of revolutionaries attempted a coup, but it failed within three days. Some of the leaders fled to Japan, while others faced severe consequences.

The Donghak Peasant Revolution

The Donghak Peasant Revolution was a large movement against the government, the noble class (yangban), and foreign influence. Peasants demanded fairer land distribution, lower taxes, and more rights. High taxes had forced many farmers to sell their ancestral lands to wealthy landowners. This led to strong anti-Japanese and anti-yangban feelings among the peasants.

The rebellion began in 1894, partly due to the corrupt actions of a local official. Peasant leader Jeon Bong-jun defeated government forces and distributed property to the farmers. Although an agreement was reached, the Joseon government asked China for help to end the revolt. China sent troops, which, according to an earlier agreement, also allowed Japan to send its own troops. This became a major cause of the First Sino-Japanese War.

Later in 1894, pro-Japanese forces and Japanese troops attacked the peasant army. In the Battle of Ugeumchi, the peasant army, armed mostly with traditional weapons, was defeated by the modern weapons of the Japanese and government forces. Jeon Bong-jun was captured and lost his life a few months later. Although the revolution failed, many of the peasants' concerns were later addressed through government reforms.

The Assassination of Empress Myeongseong

In 1895, Empress Myeongseong (also known as "Queen Min") was a strong leader who tried to counter Japan's growing influence in Korea. She considered seeking support from Russia or China. However, Japanese agents, led by the Japanese minister to Korea, orchestrated a plot against her. A group of Japanese agents entered the royal palace in Seoul, and the Empress tragically lost her life.

The Korean Empire is Declared

Independence Gate, built in 1896

China's defeat in the 1894 war led to the Treaty of Shimonoseki between China and Japan. This treaty officially recognized Korea's independence from its long-standing relationship with China. For Japan, this was a step towards becoming a major power in the region. After this, Korea built the Independence Gate and stopped sending tributes to the Qing dynasty.

Feeling pressure from larger powers, the Joseon court decided to strengthen its national identity. In 1897, it declared the Korean Empire. King Gojong took the title of emperor to show Korea's full independence. He tried to introduce reforms, but these efforts faced opposition from the public and challenges from Japan.

Technically, the Joseon period officially ended on October 13, 1897, when the country's name changed to the Korean Empire. However, the royal family continued to rule, though increasingly affected by Japanese interference.

Japanese Occupation

Japan continued to expand its influence. After defeating Russia in the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905), Japan was free to take control of Korea.

In 1905, the Protectorate Treaty was signed, making Korea a protectorate of Japan. This meant Japan controlled Korea's foreign affairs. Itō Hirobumi became the first Japanese resident general in Korea. He was later assassinated by a Korean independence activist, An Jung-geun, in 1909.

King Gojong tried to assert Korea's sovereignty by sending representatives to the Hague Peace Convention in 1907. However, Japanese delegates blocked them. Despite this, the Korean representatives spoke to newspapers to share their message. In response, the Japanese forced Gojong to step down, and his son Sunjong became the new emperor.

Finally, in 1910, despite strong opposition from many Koreans, the Empire of Japan annexed Korea by force, bringing the Joseon dynasty's long history to an end.

See also

• History of Korea