History of Russia (1721–1796) facts for kids
The history of Russia from 1721 to 1796 is a fascinating time. It began with the creation of the Russian Empire in 1721. This period saw many changes in who ruled Russia, often through quick and sudden takeovers. It also includes the long and important reign of Catherine the Great.
Contents
Changing Rulers: The Era of Palace Revolutions
After Peter the Great died in 1725, there were no clear rules about who should become the next ruler. This led to many secret plans and sudden changes in power. The most important factor for becoming the Tsar or Empress was getting the support of the special palace guard in St. Petersburg.
After Peter's death, his wife, Catherine I, became Empress. But she died in 1727. Then, Peter's grandson, Peter II, took the throne. In 1730, Anna Ivanovna, whose father Ivan V had been a co-ruler with Peter, became Empress. A group called the Supreme Privy Council tried to limit her power. But Anna had the support of other nobles who preferred a strong ruler over a few powerful families. So, the idea of a single powerful ruler remained strong.
Anna died in 1740. Her young grandnephew, Ivan VI, was named Tsar. But after more quick changes in power, Peter the Great's daughter, Elizabeth, became Empress in 1741. Her rule (1741-1762) was much more stable and effective. During her time, Russian culture began to grow in new ways. Important events included the start of Moscow University in 1755 and the Academy of Fine Arts in 1757. Russia also saw its first famous scientist, Mikhail Lomonosov.
During these years, Russia became more involved in European events. From 1726 to 1761, Russia was friends with Austria. They often worked together against the Ottoman Empire. In the War of Polish Succession (1733–1735), Russia and Austria stopped France from putting their chosen person on the Polish throne. In the Russo-Turkish War of 1735-1739, Russia got back the port of Azov. Russia's biggest involvement in Europe was during the Seven Years' War (1756–1763). This war was fought across three continents. Russia stayed allied with Austria. In 1760, Russian forces even reached the gates of Berlin. Luckily for Prussia, Empress Elizabeth died in 1762. Her successor, Peter III, admired the Prussian king, Frederick the Great. So, Peter III quickly made Russia an ally of Prussia.
.jpg)
Peter III's rule was short and not very popular. He gave nobles more freedom and ended their required service to the state. This was liked by many. However, he upset the Church by taking their lands. He also made the army unhappy by forcing them to use strict Prussian military drills. And he made Russia lose a military victory by suddenly allying with Prussia. Seeing this unhappiness, Peter III's wife, Catherine, removed him from power in a sudden takeover in June 1762. Peter III passed away shortly after, and Catherine became Catherine II, Empress of Russia.
Catherine I: 1725–1727
Peter the Great had two wives. His second wife, Marfa Skavronskaya, was a simple peasant who became Catherine after joining the Orthodox Church. Catherine I rose from a humble background to become Empress. This showed how Peter the Great's ideas could change society. With help from Aleksandr Menshikov, a trusted adviser and leader of the palace guards, she became Empress. She highlighted her connection to Peter I and her caring nature.
Catherine I was not in good health, so Menshikov did much of the ruling. She allowed him to create the Supreme Privy Council, a group of about six members. This Council took over many duties from the Ruling Senate, which Peter I had set up. Catherine I quickly named Peter II, Peter the Great's grandson, as her successor. She died after ruling for only two years.
Peter II: 1727–1730
Peter II was only eleven years old when he became emperor. Because he was so young, his advisers often guided him. Menshikov tried to keep his power by taking the young boy under his wing. He sent his rivals away and even planned for Peter II to marry his daughter, Maria Menshikova.
However, Menshikov became ill and left the court. Then, Andrei Osterman and Alexis Dolgoruky became close to the young emperor. They replaced Menshikov as Peter II's main advisers. Both were nobles and part of the Supreme Privy Council. They eventually had Menshikov tried and sent away. Peter then became engaged to Dolgoruky's daughter, Catherine. But before the wedding, Peter died of smallpox. He did not name a successor, which led to another struggle for the throne.
Anna of Russia: 1730–1740
When Peter II died, there were several people who could claim the throne. Alexis Dolgoruky and his allies chose Anna Ivanovna, the daughter of Peter I’s half-brother Ivan. They chose her because the Supreme Privy Council wanted a ruler who would not challenge their power. They offered her the throne with "Conditions." These conditions meant she could not marry, choose a successor, declare war or peace, raise taxes, or spend state money without the Council's permission.
Many other nobles saw this as an attempt by a few families to grab power. They told Anna this when she arrived in Moscow. In the end, Anna rejected the conditions, got rid of the Council, and sent many of its members into exile. During her rule, Anna relied heavily on Ernst Johann von Biron, her close adviser. Some people called her reign "Bironovshchina" because of his influence. Together, they made changes that helped the nobles, like reducing their required state service.
Anna's government was involved in foreign conflicts. In 1732, Russia had to give back some lands to Persia to form an alliance against the Ottoman Empire. From 1733–1736, Russia allied with Austria against France and Spain in the War of Polish Succession. They worked together to ensure Austria's chosen candidate won the Polish throne. Later, Russia and Austria fought the Ottoman Empire (1735-1739). This war helped Russia get back Azov and some other lands, but many soldiers died, mostly from disease. Anna named Ivan VI, a young grandnephew, as her successor and Biron as his regent.
Ivan VI: 1740–1741
Ivan VI was a baby when he became Tsar. His mother, Anna Leopoldovna, argued with Biron and replaced him as the baby's regent. A group of Russian and German advisers guided Anna Leopoldovna. However, her rule was not effective and lasted only a year.
Elizabeth, Peter I's last surviving daughter, saw this as her chance to gain power. She led a sudden takeover against Anna Leopoldovna and Ivan VI. She imprisoned or sent away everyone who stood in her way.
Elizabeth of Russia: 1741–1762
As Peter I's last surviving child, Elizabeth's rule was seen as very proper and right. People welcomed her as an end to German influence in the court. She was more interested in politics than the rulers before her. However, she was sometimes impatient and unpredictable. She did not rely too much on any one adviser.
Her government continued many of Peter I's ideas. She gave power back to the Senate, removed most internal trade taxes, and founded the University of Moscow in 1755. During her reign, she ordered the building of famous structures like the Winter Palace, though it was finished later by Catherine the Great. Elizabeth also wanted to keep the nobility happy. During her time, nobles gained more control over the lives of serfs. For example, landlords could control who serfs married. The Senate even allowed nobles to send their serfs to Siberia. Despite the harder life for serfs, most people still saw Elizabeth as a kind ruler.
Elizabeth was very interested in diplomacy and Russia's foreign affairs. Under her rule, Russia fought in the Seven Years' War from 1755 to 1762. Russia joined Austria and France against Prussia. The war went well, but it ended because of money problems and Elizabeth's death in 1762. Her nephew and successor, Peter III, took Russia out of the war.
Peter III: Six Months in 1762
Peter III ruled for only six months before his wife, Catherine II, led a takeover against him. He was born and grew up in Germany and did not come to Russia until he was fourteen. It is hard to know his true personality because there are many different stories about him.
Peter took Russia out of the Seven Years' War. This helped save Russia's money and prevented his admired Prussia from being completely defeated. However, it also meant Russia lost a chance to gain new lands. He also threatened war with Denmark over some family claims. His "Manifesto on the Freedom of the Nobility" ended the required state service for nobles. But during his short rule, Peter upset the nobility by reducing the Senate's power. He also angered the Church by freeing serfs on church land and showing little respect for Russian Orthodoxy.
Peter's love for the Prussian military style ultimately ended his rule. His strict discipline upset the palace guards. This allowed Catherine II, with the help of Grigori Orlov, a leader of the palace guard regiments and a supporter of Catherine, to remove Peter III from power on July 9, 1762. Peter's death marked the end of this era of palace revolutions.
The Age of Catherine the Great
Catherine the Great's rule was a time of great growth for the Russian Empire. Russia gained huge new lands in the south and west. Catherine also made the government stronger inside Russia. She solved her husband's conflict with Denmark by trading some land for an alliance. This alliance connected Denmark's foreign policy to Russia's.
A new war with the Ottoman Empire in 1768 ended with the Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji in 1774. Russia gained new regions and became the official protector of Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire. Russia also gained military protection over the Crimean Khanate, which became somewhat independent from the Ottomans. In 1783, Catherine took over Crimea. This helped start the next war with the Ottoman Empire in 1787. By the Treaty of Jassy in 1792, Russia expanded south to the Dniestr river. The Ottoman Empire was no longer a serious threat to Russia.
Russia's expansion to the west under Catherine happened because Poland was divided. As Poland became weaker in the 18th century, its neighbors (Russia, Prussia, and Austria) all tried to put their own candidate on the Polish throne. In 1772, the three countries agreed to divide some Polish land. Russia received parts of Belarus and Livonia. After this, Poland started a big reform program, including a democratic constitution. This worried some groups in Poland and Russia. Using the idea of "danger from radicalism" as an excuse, the same three powers again took land from Poland in 1793. This time, Russia gained most of Belarus and Ukraine west of the Dnieper river. The 1793 division led to the Kościuszko Uprising in Poland. This uprising ended with the third division of Poland in 1795. As a result, Poland disappeared from the map of independent countries. Russia gained lands in Lithuania and Courland in this third division.
Even though dividing Poland added a lot of land and importance to Russia, it also created new problems. Russia now shared borders with Prussia and Austria, without Poland as a buffer. Also, the empire became more diverse with many Poles, Ukrainians, Belarusians, Lithuanians, and Jews. Roman Catholic Poles were unhappy about losing their independence and often rebelled against Russian rule. Russia had not allowed Jews in the empire since 1742. A law in 1792 created the Pale of Settlement. This allowed Jews to live only in the western part of the empire, leading to discrimination later on. At the same time, Russia ended the self-rule of Ukraine east of the Dnieper, the Baltic provinces, and various Cossack areas. Catherine wanted a unified empire, which set the stage for later rulers to try to make everyone more "Russian."
Historians discuss whether Catherine was truly an "enlightened monarch." But most agree she believed in active government. She wanted to develop the empire's resources, create educated people, and improve how the government worked. In 1767, she created the Legislative Commission to write new laws for Russia. Even though the commission did not create a new law code, Catherine's Instruction to the Commission introduced modern legal ideas. This document also became the basis for Catherine's later laws.
During the 1768-1774 war with the Ottoman Empire, Russia faced a major social uprising. In 1773, a Cossack named Emel'yan Pugachev claimed to be the returned Tsar Peter III. Other Cossacks, various Turkic tribes, and factory workers in the Ural Mountains, along with peasants hoping to escape serfdom, joined the rebellion. Russia was busy with the war, which allowed Pugachev to control part of the Volga area. But the regular army crushed the rebellion in 1774.
The Pugachev Uprising made Catherine even more determined to reorganize Russia's local government. In 1775, she divided Russia into provinces and districts based on population. She then gave each province more administrative, police, and judicial power. Nobles no longer had to serve the central government, as they had since Peter the Great's time. Many nobles received important roles in local governments.
Catherine also tried to organize society into clear social groups, or estates. In 1785, she issued special charters to nobles and townspeople. The Charter to the Nobility confirmed that nobles were free from required service. It also gave them personal rights that even the ruler could not take away. The Charter to the Towns, which set up self-government for towns, was more complex and less successful than the one for nobles.
Russia continued to modernize during Catherine's reign. More books and newspapers led to new ideas and discussions. In 1790, Aleksandr Nikolaevich Radishchev published his Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow. This book strongly criticized serfdom and the absolute power of the ruler. Catherine, already worried by the French Revolution, had Radishchev arrested and sent to Siberia. Radishchev later became known as an important figure in Russian radical thought. In 1796, Catherine started a new war against Persia. This was to protect the Georgians, as Russia had promised in a treaty.
Catherine completed many of Peter the Great's plans. She laid the groundwork for the Russian Empire in the 19th century. Russia became a powerful country that could compete with other European nations in military, political, and diplomatic matters. Russia's upper class became more like the elites in Central and West European countries. The way society and government were organized, from Peter the Great's central institutions to Catherine's local administration, stayed mostly the same until serfs were freed in 1861. Catherine's push to the south, including setting up Odesa as a Russian port on the Black Sea, helped Russia's grain trade in the 19th century.
In the early 19th century, Russia's population, resources, and military made it one of the most powerful countries in the world. This power allowed it to play a bigger role in European affairs. This led the empire into several wars against Napoleon, which had big effects on Russia and the rest of Europe.
Inside Russia, the population became more diverse with each new land gained. The people included Lutheran Finns, Baltic Germans, Estonians, and some Latvians. There were also Roman Catholic Lithuanians, Poles, and some Latvians. Orthodox and Uniate Belarusians and Ukrainians lived there, along with Muslim peoples along the southern border and in the East. Orthodox Greeks and Georgians, and members of the Armenian Apostolic Church were also part of the empire.
See also
- Ambassadors and envoys from Russia to Poland (1763–1794)
- Bibliography of Russian history (1613–1917)
