Roman censor facts for kids

The censor was an important official in ancient Rome. These officials were in charge of keeping track of the census, which was a count of people and their property. They also watched over public behavior and managed some parts of the government's money.

This job started during the Roman Republic. The censor's power was very specific but also very strong. No other official could go against their decisions in their area of work. Only a new censor could change what a previous one had decided. Censors also served for a long time, usually 18 months to 5 years. Most other Roman officials served for 12 months or less. Because of this, being a censor was a very respected position. It was usually given to people who had already been a consul, which was one of the highest jobs. Becoming a censor was seen as the greatest achievement for a Roman politician. However, this job did not continue when Rome became an Empire.

The idea of a "censor" and "censorship" today comes from the Roman censors' role in watching over public behavior.

How the Censor Job Started

The idea of counting people, called the census, first began with Servius Tullius, the sixth king of Rome, around 575–535 BC. After Rome became a Republic in 509 BC, the consuls were in charge of the census until 443 BC.

In 442 BC, new officials called tribunes with consular power were chosen instead of consuls. This was a way for the plebeians (common people) to get more important jobs. Only patricians (rich, noble families) could be consuls, but some military tribunes were plebeians. To stop plebeians from controlling the census, the patricians created a new job just for the census. They chose two officials called censores (censors), and at first, only patricians could be chosen.

The patricians kept control of the censor job until 351 BC. That year, Gaius Marcius Rutilus became the first plebeian censor. Twelve years later, in 339 BC, a new law said that one censor had to be a plebeian. Even with this law, no plebeian censor performed the special purification ceremony (the lustrum) until 280 BC. Finally, in 131 BC, both censors were plebeians for the first time.

There were always two censors because the two consuls used to do the census together. If one censor died, another was chosen to replace them. This happened only once, in 393 BC. But then the Gauls attacked Rome during that five-year period. After that, Romans thought replacing a censor was bad luck. So, if one censor died, the other would also resign, and two new censors would be chosen.

A law proposed by the dictator Mamercus Aemilius Mamercinus limited the censor's term to eighteen months. During the time of Appius Claudius Caecus (312–308 BC), the censor's job became much more important. Caecus built the first Roman road (the Via Appia) and the first Roman aqueduct (the Aqua Appia), both named after him. He also changed how the Roman tribes were organized and was the first censor to create the list of senators. He encouraged building Roman towns (coloniae) to help Rome in the Second Samnite War. Because of his efforts, Appius Claudius Caecus held the censor job for a full five-year period. The censor job then became one of the most important political roles in the Roman Republic, second only to the consuls.

Choosing a Censor

Censors were chosen in the Centuriate Assembly, which was led by a consul. Both censors had to be elected on the same day. If the voting for the second censor wasn't finished, the election of the first was canceled, and they had to start over.

The election for censors was different from that of consuls and praetors. So, censors were not seen as their direct colleagues, even though they also had great authority. The new consuls held the assembly for censors soon after they started their own terms. Once elected, and after the Centuriate Assembly approved their power, the censors officially began their work.

Usually, only people who had already been consuls could become censors. But there were a few exceptions. At first, a person could be censor more than once. However, only Gaius Marcius Rutilus was elected twice, in 265 BC. That year, he made a law that no one could be elected censor twice. Because of this, he was given the special name Censorinus.

Censor's Special Powers

The censor's job was different from other Roman official jobs because of how long they served. Originally, censors were chosen for a full five-year period (a lustrum). But just ten years after the job was created (433 BC), their term was limited to eighteen months by a law from Dictator Mamercus Aemilius Mamercinus.

Censors were also unique in their importance and respect. They didn't have imperium (military command power) and so didn't have lictors (bodyguards). Their high rank came from the Centuriate Assembly.

Even without imperium, the censor job was seen as the highest position in the state, except for the dictatorship. It was considered a "sacred job" (sanctus magistratus) that deserved deep respect. The censor's high rank grew because they were given many important duties over time. Especially important was their control over regimen morum, which meant they watched over the behavior and morals of citizens. When they used this power, they only followed their own sense of duty. They were not answerable to any other power in the state.

Censors used a special official chair called a "curule chair" (sella curulis). Their funerals were always very grand, which is why a "censorial funeral" (funus censorium) was even given to emperors.

End of the Censor Job

The censor job existed for 421 years, from 443 BC to 22 BC. But during this time, many five-year periods passed without any censors being chosen. Some say the job was ended by Lucius Cornelius Sulla. This is likely true because no census was taken during the twelve years after Sulla's time (82–70 BC). Also, strict moral rules would have been difficult for the powerful families who supported Sulla.

If Sulla did get rid of the censor job, it was brought back when Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey) and Marcus Licinius Crassus were consuls. However, its power was limited by a law from the tribune Publius Clodius Pulcher (58 BC). This law said that censors had to follow certain rules before removing someone from the Roman Senate. It also required both censors to agree on such a punishment. This law was later canceled in 52 BC, but the censor job never got back its old power.

During the civil wars that followed, no censors were elected for a long time. They were appointed again only in 23 BC, when Augustus had Lucius Munatius Plancus and Aemilius Lepidus Paullus fill the role. This was the last time these officials were appointed. After this, the emperors took over these duties themselves, sometimes calling it Praefectura Morum ("prefect of morals").

Some emperors sometimes took the name of censor when they counted the Roman people. This happened with Claudius and Vespasian. Domitian even called himself "perpetual censor" (censor perpetuus), meaning censor for life. But other emperors did not follow this example.

What Censors Did

The censors had three main types of duties, all connected to each other:

1. The Census: This was counting citizens and their property. It also included checking the lists of senators and deciding who qualified for equestrian (knight) rank.
2. The Regimen Morum: This was keeping watch over public behavior and morals.
3. Managing state money: This included overseeing public buildings and building new public works.

At first, the censor's job was mostly just taking the census. But having this power slowly led to more power and new duties. A short summary of their duties was given by Cicero: "Censors are to count the people's ages, children, families, and money. They are to watch over the city's temples, roads, water, treasury, and taxes. They are to divide the people into groups. Then, they are to approve people's money, ages, and ranks. They are to list the children of knights and foot soldiers. They are to stop people from being unmarried. They are to guide the behavior of the people. They are not to ignore bad behavior in the Senate."

The Census: Counting People and Property

Scene of census-taking from the so-called Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus, late 2nd century BC

The Census was the first and most important duty of the censors. It was always done in the Campus Martius (Field of Mars). From 435 BC onwards, it was done in a special building called Villa publica.

To start the census, a public announcer called citizens to appear before the censors. Each tribe (group of citizens) was called separately. Every head of a family (pater familias) had to appear in person before the censors, who sat on their special chairs. Names that were thought to bring good luck were called first.

The census was done based on the censor's judgment. But censors also set rules for what property should be counted and how its value should be estimated. Citizens had to swear an oath and honestly report about themselves, their family, and their property. First, they gave their full name and their father's name. If they were a libertus (freedman), they gave their patron's name. They also had to state their age. Then they were asked if they had a wife. If married, they gave their wife's name and the names and ages of their children. Single women and orphans were represented by their guardians.

After giving family details, citizens had to report all their property that was subject to the census. Only property owned according to Roman law was counted. At first, citizens just gave the total value of their property. But soon, they had to list every item in detail. Land was the most important item. Slaves and cattle were also very important. Censors could also ask for a list of items not usually reported, like clothing, jewelry, and carriages. It is believed that censors could set a higher value on property than what citizens reported, especially for luxury items, to prevent cheating. They could also make people pay a higher tax rate as a punishment.

If a person purposely missed the census, they were called incensus and could be severely punished. In early Rome, they could be imprisoned or even killed. In the Republic, they might be sold as slaves by the state. Later, someone else could represent an absent person. Soldiers away on duty might have been excused or represented.

The Temple of Saturn, which housed the aerarium Saturni and the aerarium sanctum

After collecting all the information, the censors created lists for the tribes, classes, and centuries. These lists were very important because a citizen's place in society depended on their property value. These lists, especially those related to state money, were kept in the aerarium (treasury) in the Temple of Saturn. All the censor's records were kept in the Atrium Libertatis (Hall of Liberty) and later in the Temple of the Nymphs.

Besides dividing citizens into groups, censors also made the lists of senators for the next five years. They could remove names of those they thought were unworthy and add new qualified people. They also reviewed the equites (knights) who received a public horse and added or removed names as they saw fit. They also confirmed or appointed the princeps senatus (leader of the Senate), who had to be a former censor. After all lists were done, the total number of citizens was counted and announced.

Census Beyond Rome

A census was sometimes taken in the Roman provinces, even during the Republic. The emperor sent special officers called censitores to do this. These officers were helped by censuales who made the lists. In Rome, the census continued under the Empire, but the old ceremonies were no longer performed after the time of Vespasian.

Other Meanings of "Census"

The word census in Rome could also mean:

• The amount of a person's property (for example, census senatorius was the property needed to be a senator).
• The lists made by the censors.
• The tax that was based on the property valuation in the census.

Regulating Public Behavior

Watching over public behavior (regimen morum) was the second most important duty of the censors. This made their job very respected and also feared. They were sometimes called castigatores ("chastisers"). This duty grew from their power to remove people from citizen lists. They became the main judges of whether a citizen deserved to keep their rank or if they had done something shameful.

In this way, censors slowly gained almost complete control over the public and private lives of every citizen. They were seen as the protectors of public morals. They didn't just stop crimes; they also made sure people followed traditional Roman character, ethics, and habits (mos majorum).

The punishment given by censors for bad behavior was called nota ("mark") or notatio ("marking"). When giving this punishment, they only followed their honest sense of duty. They had to swear an oath to be fair. They also had to write down the reason for the punishment next to the guilty citizen's name.

This part of the censor's job was like public opinion today. Many actions are seen as wrong but are not against the law. Even for real crimes, the law might only punish the specific act. But public opinion might still prevent the person from getting certain honors.

So, Roman censors could give a "censorial mark" (nota censoria) to someone even if they had already been punished for a crime in court. This mark led to ignominia (loss of honor), but not infamia (loss of legal rights). The censor's decision was not a final court judgment. Its effects were not permanent and could be removed by the next censors or by a new law. A censorial mark was only valid if both censors agreed. Ignominia was a temporary lowering of status. It didn't seem to make an official lose their job, and it certainly didn't stop people from getting new jobs or serving in the army. For example, Mamercus Aemilius Mamercinus became dictator even after receiving a censor's reproach.

A person could get a censorial mark for many reasons. It often depended on the censors' judgment. Sometimes, one group of censors might ignore something that another group would punish severely. But the offenses that were punished by censors usually fell into three groups:

• Things done in private life:

* Not getting married when a person should have been married to provide citizens for the state. Censors often urged citizens to marry. Refusing to marry was punished with a fine. * Ending a marriage or engagement in a wrong way or for bad reasons. * Bad behavior towards one's wife or children, or being too strict or too easy on children, or children not obeying parents. * Living a very luxurious or expensive life. Many examples of this are recorded. Later, sumptuary laws were made to control luxury. * Neglecting one's fields. * Cruelty towards slaves or clients. * Having a bad job, like acting in theaters. * Trying to get inheritances unfairly, cheating orphans, and similar actions.

• Things done in public life:

* An official acting in a way that didn't fit their job, like taking bribes or faking good omens. * Bad behavior towards an official, or trying to limit their power or cancel a law the censors thought was important. * Lying under oath. * Neglect, disobedience, or cowardice of soldiers in the army. * Not taking good care of a public horse (equus publicus) given to a knight.

• Other actions:

* Various actions or activities that were thought to harm public morals could be forbidden by the censors. Those who went against these rules were marked and lowered in status.

If a person received a censorial mark and felt it was unfair, they could try to prove their innocence to the censors. If that didn't work, they could try to get one of the censors to speak up for them.

Censor's Punishments

The punishments given by censors usually depended on a person's social standing. However, sometimes a high-ranking person could receive all punishments at once, being lowered to the lowest class of citizens. Punishments were generally divided into four types:

1. Motio ("removal") or ejectio e senatu ("ejection from the Senate"): This meant removing a man from the list of senators. This could be just removing them from the list, or the person could also be removed from their tribe and lowered to the rank of an aerarian (a citizen with fewer rights, usually paying a head tax). The usual way was simply to leave out the senator's name from the new lists. So, "senators passed over" meant they were removed from the Senate. Sometimes, censors would publicly scold the senator. Since losing honor didn't stop an ex-senator from holding jobs that led to the Senate, they could become a senator again at the next census.
2. The ademptio equi: This was taking away the publicly funded horse from an equestrian (knight). This punishment could also be simple, or combined with removal from tribes and lowering to aerarian rank.
3. The motio e tribu: This was removing a person from their tribe. At first, this was the same as being lowered to an aerarian. But later, when there were differences between country tribes and city tribes, motio e tribu meant moving a person from a respected country tribe to a less respected city tribe. If it also meant being lowered to an aerarian, that was stated clearly.
4. The fourth punishment was called referre in aerarios or facere aliquem aerarium: This meant making someone an aerarian. This punishment included all the others. For example, a knight couldn't become an aerarian unless his horse was taken away first.

This power of the Roman censors eventually led to the modern meaning of "censor" and "censorship". Today, these terms refer to officials who review published materials and stop anything they think goes against "public morality."

Managing State Money

Managing the state's money was another part of the censor's job. First, the tributum (property-tax) was paid by each citizen based on their property value recorded in the census. So, the censors naturally managed this tax. They also oversaw all other state income, called vectigalia, such as taxes on public lands, salt works, mines, and customs.

Censors usually held auctions to let out the collection of taxes for a five-year period. This auction was called venditio or locatio. It seems to have happened in March in a public place in Rome. The rules for these contracts, and the rights and duties of the people who won the bids, were all written in the leges censoriae (censor's laws).

Censors also had the right to create new taxes and even sell state land, though probably with the Senate's approval. It seems the censors had to create a budget for a five-year period and make sure the state had enough money for its expenses. In some ways, their duties were like a modern minister of finance. However, censors did not actually receive the state's money. All public money went into the aerarium (treasury), which was controlled by the Senate. All payments were made by the Senate, using the quaestors as their officers.

Overseeing Public Works

In one important area, public works, the censors were in charge of spending public money. (The actual payments were likely made by the quaestors.)

Censors oversaw all public buildings and projects (opera publica). To pay for these, the Senate gave them a certain amount of money or income. They had to make sure temples and other public buildings were in good repair. They also made sure no private people took over public spaces. They ensured that aqueducts, roads, drains, and other facilities were properly maintained.

Repairs and maintenance of public works were given out by the censors to the lowest bidder in public auctions. These expenses were called ultrotributa. The people who took on these contracts were called conductores or mancipes. Their duties were detailed in the Leges Censoriae. Censors also oversaw expenses related to religious worship, like feeding the sacred geese on the Capitol. These tasks were also given out by contract. Censors often spent large amounts of money on public works.

Appius Claudius Caecus, one of the most influential censors

Besides keeping existing public buildings in good shape, censors also built new ones. These could be for beauty or for use, both in Rome and other parts of Italy. Examples include temples, basilicae, theaters, porticoes, forums, aqueducts, city walls, harbors, bridges, sewers, and roads. These projects were either done together by the two censors, or they divided the money given by the Senate. They were given to contractors, and when finished, the censors had to check that the work was done correctly.

The very first Roman road, the Via Appia, and the first Roman aqueduct, the Aqua Appia, were built when Appius Claudius Caecus was censor. He was one of the most important censors.

The aediles also oversaw public buildings. It's not easy to perfectly separate the duties of censors and aediles. But generally, the aediles' job was more like police work, while the censors' job was more about money and large projects.

The Lustrum Ceremony

After the censors finished their duties and took the five-yearly census, a special ceremony called the lustrum followed. This was a solemn purification of the people. When censors started their job, they drew lots to see which of them would perform this purification. However, both censors had to be present at the ceremony.

Long after the Roman census stopped being taken, the Latin word lustrum has survived. In some modern languages, it now means a period of five years.

Census Statistics: How Many Romans?

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