Servius Tullius facts for kids

Quick facts for kids Servius Tullius
Servius Tullius, 16th-century depiction published by Guillaume Rouillé
King of Rome
Reign	c. 578–535 BC
Predecessor	Lucius Tarquinius Priscus
Successor	Lucius Tarquinius Superbus
Spouse	Tarquinia (Livy) or Gegania (Plutarch)
Issue	Tullia
Father	Uncertain
Mother	Ocrisia

Servius Tullius was the legendary sixth King of Rome. He was the second king from the Etruscan family line. He ruled from 578 BC to 535 BC. Ancient Roman and Greek stories say he started as a servant. Later, he married the daughter of Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, Rome's first Etruscan king. King Tarquinius was killed in 579 BC.

How Servius became king is not fully clear. Some stories say he was the first king not chosen by the Senate. He gained the throne with support from the people and the queen. Other stories say the Senate chose him, with the queen's help, but without a public vote.

Some traditions say Servius's father was a god. The historian Livy wrote that Servius's mother, Ocrisia, was a captured princess. She became a slave to the Romans. Her child, Servius, was chosen as a future king after a ring of fire was seen around his head. The Emperor Claudius had a different story. He said Servius was an Etruscan soldier named Mastarna. Mastarna fought for a leader named Caelius Vibenna.

Servius was a well-liked king. He helped Rome a lot. He won battles against Veii and other Etruscans. He also made Rome bigger, adding the Quirinal, Viminal, and Esquiline hills. People say he started the Compitalia festivals. He also built temples for the goddesses Fortuna and Diana. Some even credit him with creating Rome's first true coins.

Servius helped Rome's lower-class citizens and non-citizens. He gave more people the right to vote, even though Rome's wealthy families (called patricians) did not like it. Livy says Servius ruled for 44 years. He was then murdered by his own daughter, Tullia, and his son-in-law, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus. This "terrible crime" and Tarquinius's pride led to his removal. This event paved the way for Rome to stop having kings. It led to the start of the Roman Republic, which Servius's changes had already prepared for.

Rome's Early Kings

Before it became a Republic, Rome was ruled by kings. In Roman stories, Rome's founder, Romulus, was the first king. Servius Tullius was the sixth king. His successor, Tarquinius Superbus (Tarquin the Proud), was the last king.

The exact role of Roman kings is not fully clear. Most kings were chosen by the Senate. They served for life, like a powerful leader. But some kings claimed their right to rule came from their family or from the gods. Some kings were from Rome, while others were from foreign lands. Later Romans had mixed feelings about this past. In the Republic, having a king was seen as bad. This idea continued even during the Roman Empire.

Romans believed each king added something special to the city. This included new buildings, lands, or social rules. Servius Tullius is often called Rome's "second founder." He is also described as the "most complex" of all the kings. He was seen as a leader who prepared Rome for its future Republic.

Ancient Accounts of Servius

The oldest surviving account of Rome's early kings is Cicero's De republica (On the State). It was written in 44 BC. The main stories about Servius come from Roman historian Livy (59 BC – AD 17). His work, Ab urbe condita, was widely accepted. Other important writers include Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Plutarch (c. 46 – 120 AD).

These writers used older sources like Quintus Fabius Pictor and Cato the Elder. Livy likely used some official records. He left out stories that seemed unlikely. He organized his material in a timeline. Dionysius and Plutarch offer different versions of events. Emperor Claudius, who studied Etruscan history, offered another story based on Etruscan traditions.

Servius's Beginnings

His Family and Birth

Most Roman stories say Servius's mother was Ocrisia. She was a young noblewoman captured during the Roman attack on Corniculum. She was brought to Rome and given to Tanaquil, the wife of King Tarquinius. Even though she was a slave, she was treated with respect.

In some versions, Ocrisia married a noble friend of Tarquinius. In others, she served as a Vestal Virgin in the royal home. Servius was said to be fathered by a god, either the household god Lar or Vulcan. This meant he was destined for greatness, despite his mother being a slave. Tanaquil and Ocrisia kept this a secret for a while.

Early Life and Divine Signs

Because Servius was born to a slave in the royal household, he was part of Tarquin's family. Ancient writers suggest he was a special student, not an adopted son. He married Tarquinia, the daughter of Tarquinius and Tanaquil. Plutarch, however, names Servius's wife as Gegania.

All stories agree that before he became king, something special happened. Members of the royal family saw a ring of fire around his head while he slept. This was seen as a sign of divine favor and a great omen. Servius grew up to be a loyal and responsible son-in-law. He was given important jobs in government and the military, and he did very well in both.

Servius's Rule as King

In Livy's account, King Tarquinius Priscus was chosen after the previous king, Ancus Marcius, died. Ancus's two sons were too young to rule. Servius became popular and married Tarquinius's daughter. This made him a likely next king. Ancus's sons tried to take the throne for themselves. They hired two killers who badly wounded Tarquinius.

Tanaquil, the queen, quickly closed the palace. She announced from a window that Tarquinius had made Servius the temporary ruler. Meanwhile, Tarquinius died. When his death became known, the Senate chose Servius as king. Ancus's sons then ran away. Livy says this was the first time the Roman people were not involved in choosing a king. In Plutarch's story, Servius only agreed to be king because Tanaquil insisted on her deathbed.

Early in his rule, Servius fought against Veii and the Etruscans. He was brave in battle and defeated a large enemy army. His success helped him become stronger in Rome. Records show Servius celebrated three triumphs (victory parades) over the Etruscans.

Servian Reforms: Changes for Rome

Servius is credited with many important changes, called the Servian reforms. Most of these changes gave more voting rights to certain groups. This included Rome's common citizens (later called plebs) and small landowners. These people were previously not allowed to vote because of their family background or social status.

These reforms also set out what all Roman citizens had to do for taxes and military service. These "Servian reforms" were likely a long process of changes. They probably started with earlier kings and continued after Servius. As Rome grew, changes to its citizenship and military rules were always needed. So, saying Servius did all of them at once is probably not true.

Voting Rights and the Census

Before Servius's changes, laws were made by the comitia curiata (curiate assembly). This group had 30 parts, called curiae. Roman sources say there were 10 curiae for each of three noble family groups. These groups claimed to be patricians because they came from Rome's founding families. These families made up about 200 clans, and each clan sent one "elder" to the Senate. The Senate advised the king and suggested laws. But its decisions only became law if the comitia curiata approved them.

By Servius's time, the comitia groups were a small part of the population. They ruled over many people who had no real say in their government. Rome's common citizens could join this assembly in a limited way. They could offer opinions, but only the comitia curiata could vote. So, a small group held power over the majority.

Roman tradition says Servius created a new assembly, the comitia centuriata, for common citizens. This new group would replace the comitia curiata as Rome's main law-making body. To do this, Servius created the first Roman census. This made him Rome's first Roman censor. For the census, citizens gathered to register their social rank, family, property, and income. This helped figure out their taxes, their ability to serve in the military, and which voting group they belonged to.

The census and the comitia centuriata may have been Servius's way to reduce the power of the rich families. He wanted to get direct support from his newly enfranchised citizens. The old comitia curiata still existed, but its power was mostly symbolic. Its noble members were expected to just approve what the new assembly decided.

Social Classes and Military Service

The census divided Rome's male citizens into classes based on their status, wealth, and age. Each class was split into groups called centuriae (centuries). These were supposed to have 100 men, but the number varied. They were further divided into seniores (men aged 46–60, who served as home guards) and iuniores (men aged 17–45, who served as front-line soldiers).

Adult male citizens had to serve in the military based on what they could afford. This was supposedly measured in old Roman coins called asses. A citizen's wealth and class decided their place in society and the military. But the system was mainly for figuring out voting rights and taxes. The comitia centuriata met whenever needed, for peace or war. The wealthiest citizens had the most centuries and voted first. The lower classes rarely got to vote.

The Roman army's centuria system was based on these civilian classes. Soldiers were chosen from civilian centuriae and put into military ones. Their role depended on their age, experience, and the equipment they could buy. The wealthiest young men (17–45) were armed as heavy infantry. They had helmets, leg guards, chest armor, shields, and spears. Each battle line in the army was made of one class. Military specialists, like trumpeters, came from the fifth class.

City Expansion and New Boundaries

Servius's reforms increased the number of tribes and made the city bigger. A new wall, ditch, and rampart protected the city. The walled area was divided into four administrative regions: Suburana, Esquilina, Collina, and Palatina. Servius himself is said to have moved to a new home on the Esquiline Hill.

After these changes, being part of a Roman voting-tribe depended on where you lived, not just your family or ancestry. This brought many city and country commoners into active political life. Many of them were placed in the first class, meaning they were likely to vote. Rome's division into "quarters" lasted until 7 BC. Today, a part of an ancient wall in Rome is still called the Servian Wall. It is believed to be from Servius's time.

Economy and Debt

Some Roman historians believed Servius Tullius was responsible for Rome's first true, minted coins. Before this, people used raw metal as money. This is probably not true, but he might have started officially stamping raw metal. Money was not a big part of Rome's economy then, which was mostly farming.

However, debt and debt bondage (where people had to work to pay off debts) were common. Wealthy landowners would lend seeds or food to tenants and small farmers. In return, they promised labor or a share of their crops. If they couldn't pay, they had to sell themselves or their family members to their creditor. Or, if they were small farmers, they had to give up their farm. This way, rich landowners gained more farms and workers cheaply. One writer, Dionysius, claimed Servius paid off such debts "from his own purse" and stopped debt bondage. But these practices continued long after his time.

Religion and Festivals

Servius is credited with building the Temple of Diana on the Aventine Hill. This marked the start of the Latin League. His humble birth story and his focus on common people seem to explain why Romans believed he started or reformed the Compitalia festivals. These festivals honored the Lares (household gods) who watched over each community. For the first time, non-citizens and slaves were allowed to attend and serve in these festivals.

Servius's good reputation and achievements may have linked him to temples and shrines dedicated to Fortuna, the goddess of luck. Some stories suggest they had a "sacred marriage." Plutarch says the Porta Fenestella (window gate) of the royal palace was where Queen Tanaquil announced Servius's rule. The goddess Fortuna was said to have passed through the same window to become Servius's partner.

Servius's Death

In Livy's history, Servius Tullius had two daughters, Tullia the Elder and Tullia the Younger. He arranged for them to marry the two sons of his predecessor, Lucius Tarquinius and Arruns Tarquinius. Tullia the Younger and Lucius arranged for their own siblings to be killed. Then they married each other. They then planned to remove Servius Tullius.

Tullia the Younger encouraged Lucius Tarquinius to secretly convince or bribe senators. Tarquinius went to the senate-house with armed men. He called the senators and gave a speech criticizing Servius. He said Servius was born a slave, was not properly elected, and was given the throne by a woman. He also said Servius favored the poor over the rich and took land from the wealthy to give to the poor. He criticized the census for exposing the rich to public envy.

When Servius Tullius arrived to defend himself, Tarquinius threw him down the steps. Servius was then murdered in the street by Tarquin's men. For Livy, Servius's death was a "tragic crime." It was a dark moment in Rome's history and a good reason to end the monarchy. Servius became the last of Rome's good kings. The place where he was killed is known as Vicus Sceleratus (street of shame or crime). His murder was seen as a terrible crime. This morally justified Tarquin's later removal and the end of Rome's kingship. Livy's Republic was partly built on the achievements and death of Rome's last good king.

Historical Views of Servius

His Birth Story

Stories of divine parents and favor from gods were often told about powerful leaders. These leaders seemed to rise "from nowhere" to become rulers or heroes in the ancient world. However, these legends usually say the father was divine and the mother was a princess, never a slave. Livy and Dionysius did not believe the stories of Servius's supernatural birth. They said his parents were from a conquered people, but both were noble. His background was just an accident, and his character was truly Roman. He acted for the Roman people, not for himself. These Roman qualities were likely to please the gods and bring good fortune.

The details of Servius's birth as a slave, his miraculous beginning, and his links to the goddess Fortuna were likely made more elaborate after his time. But the main ideas might have been spread during his rule. His unusual way of becoming king, and his direct appeal to the Roman people over the Senate, might have seemed like signs of a tyrant. In such times, a strong personal charm must have been key to his success.

When Servius expanded Rome's influence and reorganized its citizens and armies, his "new Rome" was still centered on the Comitium and Romulus's "hut." Servius became like a second Romulus, a helper to his people, part human and part divine. But his slave origins are unique and make him even more remarkable. One historian, Cornell, calls this "the most important single fact about him." The story of his slave birth spread far beyond Rome. A king named Mithridates VI of Pontus even mocked Rome for making "Etruscan slaves and domestic servants" into kings.

The Etruscan Servius

Emperor Claudius told a story that Servius was an Etruscan named Macstarna. This name meant "dictator" in Etruscan. Claudius shared this idea in his writings. There is some evidence for this Etruscan version of Servius in wall paintings. These paintings are in the François Tomb in Etruscan Vulci. They were made in the second half of the 4th century BC.

One painting shows Etruscan heroes killing foreign captives. One victim is named Gneve Tarchunies Rumach, which might mean a Roman named Gnaeus Tarquinius. The victors include Aule and Caile Vipinas (known to Romans as the Vibenna brothers) and their ally Macstrna. Macstrna seems to be key to their victory. Claudius was sure that Macstrna was another name for Servius Tullius. He believed Servius started as an Etruscan ally of the Vibenna brothers. He helped them settle Rome's Caelian Hill.

Claudius's story likely came from sources not available to other historians, or that they did not believe. There might have been two different Servius-like figures. Or there might have been two different traditions about the same person. Macstarna might have been the name of a famous Etruscan hero. Or it might have been an Etruscan way of saying the Roman word magister (magistrate). Claudius's "Etruscan Servius" seems less like a king and more like a Roman leader. He might have been a war-leader, or like a "dictator" in later Roman times.

Servius's Lasting Impact

Servius's political changes, and those of his successor Tarquinius Superbus, weakened the power of the noble families. They gave some of that power to common citizens. Rome's ordinary citizens became a real force in Roman politics. They gained the right to take part in government and serve in the army. This happened despite the opposition of Rome's noble families and the Senate.

Tarquinius was removed by a group of nobles, not commoners. Once the comitia centuriata (the new assembly) was created, its powers could not be taken away. As the highest court in the Roman Republic, it could overturn court decisions. The Republican Senate had to get its approval. Over time, the comitia centuriata helped commoners rise to power. It even led to commoners becoming consuls.

Servius's links to the god Lar and his changes to the local communities connect him to the founding of the Compitalia festivals. These festivals honored his divine parentage (if Lar was his father). They also extended his family rituals into the wider community. This showed his connection to the lower classes of Roman society. It also showed his royal support and protection of their rights.

Long before the Compitalia reforms of 7 BC, Dionysius of Halicarnassus wrote that Servius being fathered by a Lar and founding Compitalia were old Roman traditions. Emperor Augustus saw Servius as a popular leader who helped Rome. Servius's unwillingness to be king made him seem good. Augustus took control of the Compitalia and its common festivals. He did not, however, claim to be related to Servius. Instead, he linked himself to Romulus, the noble founding hero. Romulus was an ancestor of the divine Julius Caesar, and a descendant of Venus and Mars. Plutarch admired Servius's reforms. He praised them for bringing good order to government, the military, and public morals. He called Servius the wisest, luckiest, and best of all Rome's kings.

See also

In Spanish: Servio Tulio para niños

• Servio Tullio, a 1686 libretto by Agostino Steffani