Slavery in New France facts for kids
Slavery was a sad part of history in New France, which was a big area in North America controlled by France. Before Europeans arrived, some Indigenous groups already had a form of slavery. They would take people from other groups as captives during wars. But when Europeans came, they introduced a different kind of slavery called chattel slavery. This meant people were treated like property that could be bought and sold.
By 1750, most enslaved people in New France were Indigenous. But later, by 1834, most enslaved people were Black. This system lasted for almost 200 years and affected thousands of Indigenous and African people, including men, women, and children. Many Indigenous people were forced to work as servants or were traded like goods.
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Slavery Among Indigenous Peoples
Slavery existed in this region long before Europeans arrived. It greatly shaped how slavery developed during French rule. Many Indigenous groups, especially in the Pays d'en Haut (Upper Country), often fought wars to capture people instead of killing them. These captives would then go through a tough process to remove their old identity and mark them as captives.
This process was often very harsh. It could involve cutting off fingers, tearing out nails, or beatings. These rituals were public events, with everyone, including women and children, taking part. This helped make sure the captive, often a male warrior, understood their new place in the community. Those who survived these beatings and markings would then face more humiliating acts to erase their past. Some were even tortured and killed. Once part of the community, captives had specific roles. They were not usually seen as simple property to be traded, like in chattel slavery. Instead, they often took the place of a lost community member. For example, if someone was killed, a captive would fill their role. This often meant men might do tasks usually done by women, like serving meals or farming. Female captives sometimes became secondary wives who did household chores and had children.
Captives were also valuable in politics. They could act as translators, helping different groups talk to each other. Trading slaves also strengthened relationships between Indigenous nations, connecting people across different areas. Since captives were often taken from one group, joined another, and then traded to still others, they could help coordinate cultures. This showed how useful the Indigenous slave trade was and how much freedom captives might have had within their servitude.
How French and Indigenous Slavery Mixed
Slavery was already common when the French arrived. So, the French didn't create a new system. Instead, they adapted to the existing one. French settlers started owning slaves seriously in 1632. This continued even after the French lost New France in the 18th century. At first, slavery in the colony was tricky because France had a rule called "free-soil." This meant that slavery was not legally recognized in France itself. However, they found a way around it: they said it was wrong to enslave someone, but it was okay to buy or receive someone who was already enslaved.
French officials in Canada wanted to copy the success of other colonies that used slaves. So, France's king allowed slavery in New France. In 1709, the Raudot Ordinance of 1709 made slavery legal in the St. Lawrence Valley.
French settlers mostly got slaves through gift-giving rituals, which were common in diplomatic talks. But the French desire for more slaves changed Indigenous practices. Warfare focused more on taking captives, not just to replace lost relatives, but also because captives became valuable goods to trade with the French. Networks of alliances between Indigenous groups helped funnel captives to the French.
The trade of slaves and different ideas about slavery also affected French relationships with their Indigenous neighbors. Long wars, like the Fox Wars, were often encouraged because war captives were a good source of new slaves. Indigenous nations allied with the French used this to get French military help against the Fox people. Sometimes, different ideas about slavery caused problems. For example, when Governor Denonville sent 40 captured Iroquois to France to work on ships, it made future peace talks between the French and Iroquois very difficult.
African Slave Trade in New France
African slaves were a small group in New France compared to other parts of the "New World." By the 1750s, about 3.8 million slaves had been brought from West Africa to the Americas. Only about 1,400 of them ended up in New France. Also, the number of African slaves was always lower than the number of enslaved Indigenous people. In 1759, just before the French lost the colony, there were about 4,000 slaves in total, with around 1,200 being African.
The first recorded Black slave, Olivier Le Jeune, arrived in New France in 1632. It took over 50 years for another Black slave to appear in records, even though there were strong efforts to bring more. Several attempts were made to increase the number of African slaves to boost the workforce in mines, fisheries, and farms. People worried that bringing African slaves to Canada would be too expensive because of the different climate.
Still, Governor Marquis de Denonville asked King Louis XIV in 1688 for permission to import African slaves. He hoped to make the colony's economy more like France's Caribbean colonies. In May 1689, the King agreed. However, the number of African slaves remained very low. Records show only eleven African slaves in New France between 1689 and 1709. Later, others also suggested bringing more African slaves, pointing to colonies like the Thirteen Colonies that relied on slave labor. For example, Michel Begon argued in 1716 that New France should copy their use of slaves.
However, trying to make New France like other colonies didn't work well due to historical events and changing policies. Even though King Louis XIV allowed slave imports, the start of the Nine Years' War stopped regular trade. A similar permission in 1701 was cut short by the Seven Years' War. Besides these difficulties, economic reasons also slowed down the slave trade. New France didn't have as much potential for large, profitable farms like other colonies. Also, since Indigenous slaves were available, there were fewer chances to sell African slaves for high profits in New France.
The Royal Edict of 1685 (Code Noir)
The Code Noir (Black Code) was a set of laws mainly for Black African slaves. France had used these laws in its Caribbean colonies since 1685. It had 60 articles and was meant to offer some protection to slaves. The Code also applied to "Panis" slaves (Indigenous slaves) in New France. However, its rules were not always followed or enforced because of the close relationships between the French and Indigenous tribes.
The Code explained the rights and duties of both slaves and their owners. Slaves could not make contracts, own land, or testify in court. They were not considered full citizens. If slaves caused harm or damage, their owners were financially responsible. If an owner couldn't pay for damages, their slave could be taken away.
Owners could whip or chain their slaves. However, it was illegal to hurt, kill, or torture slaves. Even though the Code treated slaves like objects, owners still had duties. They had to feed, clothe, and care for their slaves if they were sick, injured, old, or disabled.
Regarding births and marriages, the Black Code did not legally recognize the father's situation. A marriage between a free man and a slave woman was not legal. A child born to a free man and a slave woman was considered a slave. But a child born to a free man and a free woman was free.
In 1724, the Black Code was changed. The revised Code "stressed the basic humanity of the slave." It said that every slave should be taught about Christianity, baptized, and cared for as a Christian. Families were to be recognized, and freed slaves were supposed to get the rights of regular citizens. In theory, an African person could become French. However, in reality, there was a big difference between the laws and what actually happened. Most French colonists ignored the document. It was rare for a slave to become free. While some argued that the French were kinder to their slaves than other European owners, the living conditions and treatment of slaves still depended on the owner's attitude.
Different Regions, Different Slavery
Slavery in the Illinois Country
The Illinois Country was a French settlement in the Mississippi Valley. The Illinois were an important Indigenous group who traded many slaves with the French and their Indigenous allies. Their economy relied on bison hunting, which needed a lot of workers, often slaves. Bison was not just food; it was also used for clothing and gifts.
Female slaves did tiring tasks like processing and drying meat and using bison skins for decoration and clothing. Wives and female slaves had to work together and share these jobs.
Slavery in the Illinois Country wasn't just about work; it also served cultural purposes. The slave trade helped the Illinois strengthen their ties with the French and other Indigenous allies. They would raid their enemies, like the Foxes, and offer captives as gifts to the French. Trading slaves was a ritual that strengthened alliances. The French would accept and baptize the slaves, trying to make them Christian and remove their original identity.
Taking captives often led to violent revenge, especially from the Foxes. The long-standing bad feelings between the Illinois and the Foxes put the French in a difficult spot. The French wanted to trade with the Foxes, but they also needed to keep their alliances with the Illinois and other Great Lakes groups. Asking the Illinois to give up their captives to the Foxes would offend them. Asking the Foxes to find new captives far away would also offend the Illinois because it threatened their role as middlemen for the French. Also, the French didn't want to stop the Illinois from taking captives because they benefited from the Fox slave trade. So, while the slave trade strengthened some alliances, it also caused conflicts and revenge attacks.
The French brought legal slavery of Africans to New France under the Code Noir. After the port of New Orleans was founded in 1718, connecting to the Caribbean plantation colonies, French colonists brought more African slaves to the Illinois Country. They used them for mining or farm work. By the mid-1700s, slaves made up about a third of the small population in that rural area.
Slavery on Île-Royale
Louisbourg in the colony of Île-Royale (now Cape Breton & Prince Edward Island) has official records of a Black slave community. Louisbourg was an important trading port because of its location. It was a midpoint between Europe and France's Caribbean colonies and didn't freeze over as much as settlements to the west. Its economy depended on fishing, the military, and trade. Hundreds of Black slaves are thought to have passed through the port on merchant ships. However, only 216 Black individuals were actually enslaved on Île-Royale. Most of these slaves belonged to the wealthiest people on the island: merchants, government officials, and military officers. Owning slaves improved one's living conditions and social standing.
Slaves on Île-Royale came from different places, some from the Dutch West Indies and others directly from Guinea. Despite different backgrounds, they shared the experience of being enslaved. What's interesting about Île-Royale is that slaves had many different jobs. They were servants, gardeners, bakers, tavern keepers, stonemasons, soldiers, sailors, fishermen, and hospital workers. This part of New France is important because enslaved Black people became part of the community. They were mothers and fathers who helped shape colonial life and a growing African-French culture.
Slavery in Louisiana
Louisiana was founded later than other French colonies, in 1699. But it quickly got more Black slaves than Canada because it was closer to the Caribbean slave market. It also had the chance to use the Indigenous slave market in the huge Mississippi valley. In Louisiana, plantation owners preferred African slaves, though some still kept Indigenous people as maids.
Some Panis (Indigenous slaves) were enslaved by the early 1700s, even though it was officially forbidden. These slaves were captured by other Indigenous tribes during conflicts and then sold to the French.
In 1717, John Law suggested that the Mississippi Company import Black slaves into Louisiana to help develop the economy with plantations. About 6,000 Black slaves were brought in between 1719 and 1743. Some slaves were sent to the Illinois Country, in Upper Louisiana, to work in fields and lead mines.
The Black Code regulated the conditions of slaves, just like in other French colonies outside Canada. However, the Black Code was not always strictly followed, and slaves sometimes had some freedom. For example, on their days off, slaves could grow food on a piece of land and then sell what they grew. Others would hunt, cut wood, or care for animals, often far from the plantation. Even though mixed-race marriages and slave gatherings were forbidden, both still happened. Despite these small freedoms, the lives and work of slaves remained extremely difficult. Harvest time was the hardest season for them. Their belongings were few, usually just a few personal items. Still, slave rebellions were rare during the French colonial period.
Slaves also helped create the Creole culture in this part of the colony. Even if the Black Code said slaves should get a Christian education, most continued their native practices.
Personal Stories of Slaves
The way slaves were treated in Canada depended on whether they were enslaved by an Indigenous group or a European settler. For example, when the Iroquois population was shrinking, they would often go to war to take captives to replace those who had died. Usually, the captive would go through a ritualized torture. This process was meant to break down the captive's old identity before they were fully accepted into their new clan. However, a story from the Jesuit missionary, Father Isaac Jogues, suggests that revenge and humiliation were also reasons for taking and torturing captives.
Captive taking was also practiced among other Indigenous groups. Some rituals of humiliation and torture were not always as terrible as those Father Jogues experienced. Louis Hennepin, another French missionary, wrote about his time as a captive among the Sioux. Even though he was formally adopted by the war chief Aquipaguetin to replace his dead son, he suffered physical abuse and teasing from his captors until he was released. While he didn't face the same horrors as Father Jogues, his meals were limited to keep him weak and dependent.
In contrast, French slave owners did not usually torture their slaves in the same way. European ideas about family and adoption were very different from Indigenous peoples'. Instead, many slave owners chose to baptize their slaves and give them new names. Those who wanted to keep their slave's origins a secret asked for them to be identified as "panis" on their baptism records. However, some owners delayed baptizing their slaves, and others never did. For example, the slave owner Desmoulins baptized his Black slave, Thomas, at age sixty. Phillippe Vinet-Préville baptized his slave on the day she died, at age fifty-five.
Because of their low status, many official documents didn't clearly state what jobs slaves did. In the Census of 1666, for example, slaves are just called "domestic engagé" (household worker), while other family members' jobs are clearly listed. Luckily, some legal documents did provide information about a slave's status, tasks, and sometimes even their hobbies. For instance, a smuggling trial in 1712 involved a free Indigenous slave named Joseph. This document gives us a fascinating look into the lives of free slave populations in Montreal. It mentions that Joseph spent most of his days trading with other free slaves in his neighborhood. He also had access to his owner's canoe and sometimes traveled to the Pays d'en Haut with his Indigenous friends. This small amount of information helps us see Joseph as a real person with friends and relationships outside his household.
Sometimes, testimonies and wills give us a peek into the close relationships between Indigenous or Black slaves and their owners. In 1721, a widow named Marie Claire Catoire wrote a will. She said her Indigenous slave, Suzanne, would be freed if Suzanne served her and her son Leonard for the rest of their lives. Suzanne fulfilled this condition, but Catoire added another: Suzanne and her husband had to "practice the Roman Catholic religion and behave as free persons of the French nation." Efforts to make Indigenous or Black slaves more "French" through clothing or religious conversion were common in the 1600s and 1700s. For example, in 1731, a widow named Marie LeRoy wrote a will saying her sauvagesse (Indigenous woman) should be given her "crepon dress," white cloth for "coiffes" (head coverings), and a "jupon" (petticoat) so she would remember her and "live in Christian fashion."
Stories of Enslaved Individuals
- Pierre: One of the first recorded slaves in New France. In 1690, he appeared in hospital records at age 15. His Jesuit master, who called Pierre his "domestic," placed him in hospital care twice between 1690 and 1692. He was of Panis origin, captured in the Illinois territories, and belonged to the Jesuit missionaries in Quebec.
- Marie-Joachim: An enslaved Mesquaki (Fox) Indigenous woman who belonged to Julien Trottier dit Desrivieres, a rich merchant in Montreal. She was brought to Montreal as a slave around 1712. She appeared in official records in 1725 at age 22 because she was involved in a criminal trial. She was accused of stealing trade goods from her master's warehouse to give them to her French lover. She was then sold to a master in Quebec City, where she worked as a domestic slave. She died a few years later in her late 20s.
- Marie-Marguerite: An enslaved Plains Indigenous woman who belonged to Marc-Antoine Huard de Dormicourt, a naval officer from Quebec City. Marie-Marguerite appeared in records in 1740 in her late twenties when she sued Marc-Antoine Huard de Dormicourt for her freedom. Her trial caused a big discussion in New France because she was questioning whether her enslavement was legal. She made people think about the legal limits of slavery. Sadly for Marie-Marguerite, she lost her case and was sent to work on a Caribbean sugar plantation.
- Charlotte-Barbe: An enslaved Plains Indigenous girl who belonged to Governor Charles de la Boische, Marquis de Beauharnois. Charlotte-Barbe appeared in records in 1729 when she died at age 9. This governor owned more than twenty enslaved Indigenous people at different times during his term.
- Marie-Joseph Angélique: One of New France's most famous slaves. While pregnant, she set her mistress's house on fire, either for revenge or to create a distraction for her escape. She ran away with the father of her child, who was also a Black slave belonging to another owner. The fire she started burned part of Montreal and a large section of the Hôtel-Dieu hospital. She was later caught and sentenced to death.
- Marie Louise: A famous figure for Black slaves in New France, especially on Île-Royale. She was the third enslaved woman to be freed on the island. On January 21, 1754, she married 25-year-old Louis Coustard, who had arrived in Louisbourg three years earlier from France. He was the only white man to marry a Black slave on Île-Royale. Before her marriage, Marie Louise had given birth to 7 children, all of whom had to become slaves because she was not yet free. With Louis, she had two children, both of whom were born free because their father was free.
The End of Slavery
After the Treaty of Paris in 1763, the enslavement of Panis (Indigenous slaves) in North America greatly decreased and eventually disappeared around the turn of the century, likely due to tough economic times. In 1793, bringing Black slaves into Upper Canada became illegal. This was forty years before the British government passed the 1833 Slavery Abolition Act, which ended slavery throughout the entire British Empire.
