The Thirteen Colonies were a group of British settlements along the Atlantic coast of North America. These colonies eventually broke away from British rule during the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783). They then came together to form the United States of America.

These thirteen colonies were often grouped into three regions:

New England Colonies: New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut.
Middle Colonies: New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware.
Southern Colonies: Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia.

These colonies were all part of a larger area called British America. This area also included lands in what are now the Floridas, the Caribbean, and Canada.

Each of the Thirteen Colonies was managed separately by Britain. However, they all had similar ways of governing themselves and similar laws. Most people living there spoke English and followed Protestant religions. The first permanent English colony, Virginia, was started at Jamestown in 1607. Some colonies, like Maryland and Pennsylvania, were founded by people seeking religious freedom. Others were started for business and to make money. The Middle Colonies were built on land that used to be a Dutch colony called New Netherland.

Between 1625 and 1775, the number of people in the colonies grew a lot, from about 2,000 to 2.4 million. This growth often pushed out the Native American people who already lived there. The population also included people who were forced into a system of slavery. This system was legal in all the colonies. In the 1700s, the British government used a policy called mercantilism. This meant they managed the colonies to benefit Britain's economy.

The 13 colonies had some self-governance and held local elections. They did not like it when London tried to control them more. After the French and Indian War (1754–1763), which was fought against France and its Native American allies, tensions grew between Britain and the colonies. In the 1750s, the colonies started working together more. Through newspapers and printers, they shared their concerns. This led them to demand their "Rights as Englishmen", especially the idea of "no taxation without representation".

Conflicts with the British government over taxes and rights in the late 1700s led to the American Revolution. The Thirteen Colonies united to form the Continental Congress and created the Continental Army. They declared their independence in 1776. They fought the Revolutionary War with help from France, and to a lesser extent, the Dutch Republic and Spain.

How the Colonies Began

The Thirteen Colonies of British America were grouped into New England, Middle, and Southern regions.

In 1606, King James I of England gave special permission, called a charter, to two companies: the Plymouth Company and the London Company. Their goal was to start lasting settlements in America. The London Company successfully started the Colony of Virginia in 1607 at Jamestown. This was the first permanent English colony in North America.

The Plymouth Company tried to start the Popham Colony, but it didn't last long. Later, the Plymouth Council for New England helped create other settlements. One important one was Plymouth Colony in 1620, founded by English Puritan separatists, known as the Pilgrims.

Other European countries like the Dutch, Swedish, and French also started colonies in America around the same time. However, these often ended up under English control. The last of the Thirteen Colonies to be founded was the Province of Georgia in 1732. The name "Thirteen Colonies" became popular later, especially during the American Revolution.

From 1660 onwards, the British government in London managed the colonies through a department called the Southern Department. They also had a committee called the Board of Trade and Plantations. Later, in 1768, a special department was made just for America. But it was closed in 1782, and another office took over its duties.

The New England Colonies

This 1584 map shows the east coast where early English settlements like Jamestown were founded.

The New England Colonies included:

Massachusetts Bay: This became a royal colony in 1691.
- The Popham Colony was an early attempt in 1607 but was abandoned.
- Plymouth Colony, founded by the Pilgrims in 1620, later joined with Massachusetts Bay in 1691.
- The Province of Maine was absorbed by Massachusetts Bay by 1658.
New Hampshire: Started in 1629, it became a royal colony in 1679.
Connecticut: Established in 1636, it became a royal colony in 1662.
- Smaller settlements like Saybrook Colony and New Haven Colony later merged with Connecticut.
Rhode Island and Providence Plantations: This became a royal colony in 1663.
- Roger Williams founded Providence Plantations in 1636.
- Other towns like Portsmouth, Newport, and Warwick were also founded and later joined to form Rhode Island.

These colonies sometimes worked together, like when Plymouth, Massachusetts Bay, Connecticut, and New Haven formed the New England Confederation in 1643.

The Middle Colonies

The Middle Colonies included:

Delaware: Started in 1664 as a proprietary colony, meaning it was owned by an individual or family.
New York: Also a proprietary colony in 1664, it became a royal colony in 1686.
New Jersey: Started as a proprietary colony in 1664, it became a royal colony in 1702.
- It was originally divided into East Jersey and West Jersey before reuniting.
Pennsylvania: Founded in 1681 as a proprietary colony by William Penn.

The Southern Colonies

The Southern Colonies included:

Virginia: Established in 1607, it became a royal colony in 1624.
Maryland: Started in 1632 as a proprietary colony.
North Carolina: Part of the larger Carolina province until 1712, it became a royal colony in 1729.
South Carolina: Also part of the Carolina province until 1712, it became a royal colony in 1729.
Georgia: Established as a proprietary colony in 1732, it became a royal colony in 1752.

The Province of Carolina was first chartered in 1629. It was later divided into North and South Carolina in 1712. Both became royal colonies in 1729. An earlier attempt to settle, the Roanoke Colony, was established in 1585 but was found abandoned in 1590.

Life in the 1600s: Early Settlements

King James I of England gave land grants to the London and Plymouth companies in 1606.

Southern Colonies Grow

The first British colony was Jamestown, founded on May 14, 1607, near Chesapeake Bay. The London Virginia Company funded this business venture, hoping to find gold. The first few years were very hard, with many deaths from disease and hunger, and conflicts with local Native Americans. The colony survived and grew by focusing on tobacco as a valuable crop.

In 1632, King Charles I granted the charter for the Province of Maryland to Cecil Calvert, 2nd Baron Baltimore. His father, a Catholic official, encouraged Catholics to move to the English colonies. The charter did not set rules about religion.

The Province of Carolina was the second English settlement attempt south of Virginia. It was a private project, funded by English Lords Proprietors who received a Royal Charter in 1663. They hoped Carolina would become profitable like Jamestown. The first successful settlement in Carolina was at Charleston in 1670.

Middle Colonies Take Shape

New Netherland (red and yellow) was a Dutch colony that later became the English Middle Colonies.

Starting in 1609, Dutch traders set up fur trading posts on the Hudson River, Delaware River, and Connecticut River. They wanted to protect their fur trade business. The Dutch West India Company created permanent settlements on the Hudson River, forming the Dutch colony of New Netherland.

In 1626, Peter Minuit bought the island of Manhattan from the Lenape Native Americans. He established the outpost of New Amsterdam. Not many Dutch people settled in New Netherland, but the colony became important for the fur trade. It also traded a lot with English colonies, sending goods to Europe on Dutch ships. The Dutch also brought some enslaved Africans to North America.

In 1638, Sweden started the colony of New Sweden in the Delaware Valley. This colony also traded with English colonies. The Dutch conquered New Sweden in 1655.

In the 1650s, the English and Dutch fought a series of wars. The English wanted to take over New Netherland. Richard Nicolls captured New Amsterdam in 1664. The 1667 Treaty of Breda confirmed English control. The Dutch briefly got some parts back but gave up their claim in 1674.

The British renamed New Amsterdam to "New York". Many Dutch people stayed, especially in rural areas. People from New England and Germany also moved in. New York City became a diverse place, including a large population of enslaved black people. In 1674, East Jersey and West Jersey were created from parts of New York.

Pennsylvania was founded in 1681 by William Penn, a Quaker. It attracted Quakers in Philadelphia, Scotch-Irish people on the frontier, and many German settlers. Philadelphia grew to be the largest city in the colonies, with a population of about 30,000.

New England's Beginnings

The Pilgrims were a small group of Puritan separatists. They wanted to separate from the Church of England. They first moved to the Netherlands, then sailed to America in 1620 on the Mayflower. Before landing, they signed the Mayflower Compact, agreeing to govern themselves. This established the small Plymouth Colony. William Bradford was their main leader.

More Puritans arrived in 1629 and founded the Massachusetts Bay Colony with 400 settlers. They wanted to create a new, pure church in America. By 1640, about 20,000 Puritans had arrived. Many faced hardships, but others found a healthy climate and plenty of food. Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay led to other Puritan colonies like New Haven, Saybrook, and Connecticut. New Haven and Saybrook later joined Connecticut.

Roger Williams started Providence Plantations in 1636 on land given by the Narragansett leader Canonicus. Williams was a Puritan who believed in religious tolerance and separating church and state. He was banished from Massachusetts Bay Colony for his ideas. He founded Providence with a fair constitution that allowed freedom of religion.

Other settlements like Portsmouth, Newport, and Warwick were also founded in the area. In 1663, Roger Williams secured a Royal Charter that united these settlements into the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations.

Further north, settlers mixed with adventurers to create more diverse colonies in New Hampshire and Maine. Massachusetts took over these small settlements for a time. However, New Hampshire received its own charter in 1679. Maine remained part of Massachusetts until 1820.

In 1685, King James II of England combined the New England colonies into the Dominion of New England. This put the region under the control of Governor Edmund Andros. New York and parts of New Jersey were added later. But after the Glorious Revolution in 1688, King James II was removed from power. Andros was overthrown, and the dominion ended in 1689. The colonies then went back to their previous governments.

The 1700s: Growth and Change

In 1702, East and West Jersey combined to form the Province of New Jersey.

The northern and southern parts of the Carolina colony operated somewhat separately. In 1691, Philip Ludwell became governor of the whole province. From then until 1708, the two parts remained under one government. However, they became known as North Carolina and South Carolina. In 1729, the king officially took back Carolina's charter. Both North Carolina and South Carolina then became royal colonies.

In the 1730s, James Oglethorpe suggested that the area south of the Carolinas be settled by England's "worthy poor." He hoped to offer an alternative to crowded debtors' prisons. Oglethorpe and other English helpers received a royal charter for the colony of Georgia on June 9, 1732. They wanted to create a perfect colony that banned slavery and only recruited the best settlers. However, by 1750, Georgia was still not very populated. The founders gave up their charter in 1752, and Georgia became a royal colony.

The population of the Thirteen Colonies grew greatly in the 1700s. By 1750, there were 1.5 million people. This was four-fifths of all people in British North America. More than 90 percent of colonists were farmers. Some seaports also grew. In 1760, cities like Philadelphia, New York, and Boston had over 16,000 people. By 1770, the colonies' economic output made up 40 percent of the entire British Empire's economy.

As the 1700s continued, colonists began to settle further from the Atlantic coast. Pennsylvania, Virginia, Connecticut, and Maryland all claimed land in the Ohio River valley. Colonies tried to buy land from Native American tribes. Virginia was especially interested in expanding west. Many wealthy Virginia families invested in the Ohio Company to help settle the Ohio Country.

Trade, People, and New Ideas

The British American colonies became part of a worldwide British trading network. The value of goods exported from America to Britain tripled between 1700 and 1754. Colonists were limited in trading with other European countries. However, they found good trade partners in other British colonies, especially in the Caribbean. They traded food, wood, tobacco, and other resources for tea, coffee, and sugar. Native Americans further inland supplied beaver fur and deerskins. America had many natural resources and built its own successful shipbuilding industry. Many American merchants took part in transatlantic trade.

Better economic conditions in Europe and less religious persecution made it harder to find workers for the colonies. Many colonies became more dependent on forced labor, especially in the South. The number of enslaved people in America grew a lot between 1680 and 1750. This growth came from both forced immigration and the reproduction of enslaved people. Enslaved people worked on large plantations in the South. In the North, they worked in various jobs. There were a few attempted revolts, like the Stono Rebellion, but these were put down.

While the colonies also attracted immigrants from other European countries, English migrants were the majority after 1700. Immigrants from the rest of Europe traveled to all colonies. However, the Middle Colonies attracted the most and remained more diverse. Many settlers came from Ireland, both Catholic and Protestant. Protestant Germans also immigrated in large numbers, especially to Pennsylvania. In the 1740s, the Thirteen Colonies experienced a religious revival called the First Great Awakening.

The French and Indian War

Territorial changes after the French and Indian War. Britain gained land shown in pink.

In 1738, an event involving a sailor named Robert Jenkins led to the War of Jenkins' Ear between Britain and Spain. This war later became part of a larger conflict called the War of the Austrian Succession, but colonists called it King George's War. In 1745, British and colonial forces captured the town of Louisbourg. The war ended with the 1748 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. Many colonists were angry when Britain gave Louisbourg back to France. After the war, both Britain and France wanted to expand into the Ohio River valley.

The French and Indian War (1754–1763) was the American part of a bigger European conflict called the Seven Years' War. This war was different because it started in North America and then spread to Europe. A main reason for the war was the growing competition between Britain and France, especially in the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley.

The war became very important for the British North American colonists. William Pitt the Elder, a British leader, decided to send many military resources to North America to win the war against France. For the first time, North America became a major battleground in a world war. During the war, colonists realized they were under the authority of the British Empire. British military and government officials became more present in their lives.

The war also helped create a sense of American unity. Men traveled across the continent to fight alongside others from different colonies. British officers trained Americans for battle, including George Washington. This training later helped the American cause during the Revolution. Also, colonial governments had to work closely together for the war effort. However, relations between the British military and the colonists were not always good. This led to later distrust of British troops.

At the 1754 Albany Congress, Benjamin Franklin suggested the Albany Plan. This plan would have created a unified government for the Thirteen Colonies to coordinate defense. However, most colonial leaders rejected the plan.

In the Treaty of Paris (1763), France officially gave the eastern part of its North American empire to Britain. Before the war, Britain held the thirteen American colonies, most of Nova Scotia, and the Hudson Bay area. After the war, Britain gained all French territory east of the Mississippi River. This included Quebec, the Great Lakes, and the Ohio River valley. Britain also gained Spanish Florida, which it divided into East and West Florida. By removing a major foreign threat, the war also reduced the colonists' need for British protection.

The British and colonists won the war together. The colonists' loyalty to Britain was stronger than ever. However, disagreements began to form. British Prime Minister William Pitt the Elder had used colonial troops and British tax money to fight the war. This was a successful strategy. But after the war, each side felt they had carried a greater burden. British leaders pointed out that colonists paid little in taxes to the king. Colonists replied that their sons had fought and died in a war that helped Europe more than themselves. This disagreement was one of the reasons that led to the American Revolution.

Growing Unhappiness with Britain

Britain was left with large debts after the French and Indian War. So, British leaders decided to increase taxes and control over the Thirteen Colonies. They imposed several new taxes, starting with the Sugar Act 1764. Later acts included the Currency Act 1764, the Stamp Act 1765, and the Townshend Acts of 1767. Colonial newspapers and printers strongly opposed the Stamp Act. This act taxed newspapers and official documents. They played a key role in spreading ideas against these taxes and the idea of "no taxation without representation."

The Royal Proclamation of 1763 limited settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains. This area was set aside as an Indian Reserve. Some settlers ignored the proclamation and continued to move west. The proclamation was later changed, but colonists were angry that it was made without their input.

The Road to Revolution

Join, or Die by Benjamin Franklin was used to encourage the colonies to unite against British rule.

The British Parliament directly taxed the colonies, bypassing colonial governments. Americans began to demand "no taxation without representation" with strong protests against the Stamp Act of 1765. They argued that since they had no representatives in the British Parliament, it was unfair to tax them. Parliament rejected these protests and passed new taxes.

Colonial unhappiness grew with the 1773 Tea Act. This act lowered taxes on tea sold by the East India Company to help it compete. Prime Minister North hoped colonists would accept British tax policies. But trouble grew over the tea tax. Americans in each colony boycotted the tea. In Boston, the Sons of Liberty dumped thousands of pounds of tea into the harbor during the Boston Tea Party in 1773. Tensions increased in 1774 when Parliament passed the Intolerable Acts. These laws greatly limited self-government in Massachusetts. They also allowed British soldiers to stay in colonial homes, even if civilians did not want them. The laws also meant trials involving soldiers or crown officials had to be held in England, not America. Parliament also sent Thomas Gage to be Governor of Massachusetts and commander of British forces.

By 1774, colonists still hoped to remain part of the British Empire. However, unhappiness with British rule was widespread. Colonists elected delegates to the First Continental Congress, which met in Philadelphia in September 1774. After the Intolerable Acts, the delegates stated that the colonies owed loyalty only to the king. They would accept royal governors as the king's agents. But they would no longer recognize Parliament's right to make laws affecting the colonies. Most delegates did not want to attack the British in Boston. Instead, the Continental Congress agreed to a boycott called the Continental Association. This boycott worked well, and British imports dropped sharply. The Thirteen Colonies became more divided between Patriots who opposed British rule and Loyalists who supported it.

The Fight for Independence

A map of the Thirteen Colonies (in red) and nearby colonial areas (1763–1775) before the Revolutionary War.

In response to British actions, the colonies formed elected groups called Provincial Congresses. Colonists also began to boycott British goods. In late 1774, 12 colonies sent representatives to the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia. During the Second Continental Congress, Georgia also sent delegates.

Massachusetts Governor Thomas Gage worried about a fight with the colonists. He asked Britain for more soldiers. But the British government did not want to pay for many soldiers in the colonies. Gage was ordered to seize Patriot weapons. He sent troops to Concord, Massachusetts. But the Patriots found out and stopped their advance. The Patriots pushed back the British at the April 1775 Battles of Lexington and Concord. Then they began a siege of Boston.

By spring 1775, all British royal officials had been removed. The Continental Congress held a meeting of delegates from the Thirteen Colonies. It created an army to fight the British and named George Washington its commander. It also made treaties and declared independence. The Congress recommended that the colonies write constitutions and become states. These ideas were later put into the 1777 Articles of Confederation.

In May 1775, the Second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia. They began recruiting soldiers for the Revolutionary War against the British. They also printed their own money and appointed George Washington as commander of the Patriot militias. The New England militias had started the Siege of Boston, which forced British troops to leave Boston. These militias later became the Continental Army under Washington's command.

Declaring Independence

The Second Continental Congress asked a group of five men to write the Declaration of Independence. This group included John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, Robert R. Livingston, and Roger Sherman. They asked Jefferson to write the first draft. He wrote most of it between June 11 and June 28, 1776, in Philadelphia.

On July 4, 1776, the Second Continental Congress officially approved and issued the Declaration. It was a letter listing their complaints to King George III.

With help mainly from France, the Americans defeated the British in the American Revolutionary War. The most important victory was at the Siege of Yorktown in 1781. In the Treaty of Paris (1783), Britain officially recognized the United States of America as an independent country.

How Many People Lived in the Colonies?

Population of the thirteen British colonies
Year	Estimated Population
1610	350
1620	2,302
1630	4,246
1640	25,734
1650	49,368
1660	75,058
1670	111,935
1680	151,507
1690	210,372
1700	250,588
1710	331,711
1720	466,185
1730	629,445
1740	905,563
1750	1,170,760
1760	1,593,625
1770	2,148,076

The number of people in the colonies grew to about 250,000 during the 1600s. It reached almost 2.5 million just before the American Revolution. These numbers do not include Native American tribes outside the colonies' control.

Good health was important for the colonies' growth. Fewer deaths among young people meant more people reached adulthood and had families. This helped the population grow quickly. There were also other reasons for growth, such as the Great Migration.

By 1776, about 85% of the white population had ancestors from the British Isles (English, Scots-Irish, Scottish, Welsh). About 9% were of German origin, 4% Dutch, and 2% French Huguenot and other groups.

Over 90% of people were farmers. There were also several small cities that were seaports. These ports connected the colonial economy to the larger British Empire. The population continued to grow quickly due to high birth rates and low death rates. Immigration was a smaller factor from 1774 to 1830.

Ethnic composition in the British American Colonies of 1700, 1755, 1775
1700	Percent	1755	Percent	1775	Percent
English and Welsh	80.0%	English and Welsh	52.0%	English	48.7%
African	11.0%	African	20.0%	African	20.0%
Dutch	4.0%	German	7.0%	Scots-Irish	7.8%
Scottish	3.0%	Scots-Irish	7.0%	German	6.9%
Other European	2.0%	Irish	5.0%	Scottish	6.6%
		Scottish	4.0%	Dutch	2.7%
		Dutch	3.0%	French	1.4%
		Other European	2.0%	Swedish	0.6%
				Other	5.3%
Colonies	100%	Colonies	100%	Thirteen Colonies	100%

Forced Labor in the Colonies

Chattel slavery was a legal system of forced labor in all of the Thirteen Colonies. In most places, enslaved people worked as house servants or farm workers. It was very important for the economy of tobacco farms in Virginia and Maryland. It was also crucial for rice and indigo farms in South Carolina.

About 287,000 enslaved people were brought to the Thirteen Colonies over 160 years. This was about 2% of the estimated 12 million people taken from Africa to the Americas through the Atlantic slave trade. Most enslaved people were sent to sugar colonies in the Caribbean and to Brazil. There, life expectancy was short, and new enslaved people had to be brought in constantly. By the mid-1700s, life expectancy was much higher in the American colonies.

Slaves imported into Colonial America
1620–1700	1701–1760	1761–1770	1771–1780	Total
21,000	189,000	63,000	15,000	288,000

The number of enslaved people grew quickly due to a high birth rate and low death rate. It reached almost four million by the 1860 census. From 1770 to 1860, the natural growth rate of enslaved people in North America was much higher than in any European nation. It was almost twice as fast as in England.

The laws about slavery defined it as a lifelong condition. It was passed down through the mother. This was different from common law, where status usually followed the father. Slavery was also linked to race. Legally, enslaved people were considered "chattel personal," meaning they were treated as property.

Health Challenges in Early America

Diseases were a serious threat to early settlers. Some diseases were new, and treatments were not effective. Malaria was deadly for many newcomers, especially in the Southern colonies. Over a quarter of Anglican missionaries died within five years of arriving in the Carolinas. Many infants and young children died from diseases like diphtheria, smallpox, yellow fever, and malaria.

Most sick people used local healers and folk remedies. Others relied on minister-physicians, barber-surgeons, apothecaries, midwives, and ministers. A few used colonial physicians trained in Britain or through apprenticeships. A common treatment was bloodletting. Medical knowledge about germs and infection was limited. There was little government control over healthcare or public health. By the 1700s, colonial physicians began to introduce modern medicine to cities. They made some progress in vaccination, pathology, anatomy, and pharmacology.

Religion in the Colonies

Religion was a very important part of life for early Americans. Protestantism was the main religion in the Thirteen Colonies. There were also some Catholics in Maryland, as well as Jews and deists. Many colonists had no religious connection. The Church of England was the official church in most of the South. The Puritan movement split into the Congregational and Unitarian churches. These were the official religions in Massachusetts and Connecticut into the 1800s. This meant that tax money was used for church expenses.

The colonies had many different Protestant groups brought by British, German, Dutch, and other immigrants. The Reformed tradition was the basis for Presbyterian, Congregationalist, and Continental Reformed churches. French Huguenots started their own Reformed congregations. The Dutch Reformed Church was strong among Dutch Americans in New York and New Jersey. Lutheranism was common among German immigrants. Germans also brought different forms of Anabaptism, especially the Mennonite faith. Reformed Baptist preacher Roger Williams founded Providence Plantations, which became the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. Jewish communities were found in a few port cities. The Baltimore family founded Maryland and brought fellow Catholics from England. Catholics made up about 1.6% of the population in 1775. Most Catholics were English, German, Irish, or black. Half lived in Maryland, with large groups also in New York and Pennsylvania. Presbyterians, mainly from Scotland and Ulster, often settled in frontier areas.

Quakers were well-established in Pennsylvania. They controlled the government there for many years. Quakers were also numerous in Rhode Island. Baptists and Methodists grew quickly during the First Great Awakening in the 1740s. Many religious groups also sent missionaries to local Native American tribes.

Learning and Schools

Map of higher education in the 13 Colonies before the American Revolution.

Higher education was available for young men in the North. Most students hoped to become Protestant ministers. Nine colleges were started during the colonial era. These included New College (Harvard), the College of William & Mary, Yale College (Yale), the College of New Jersey (Princeton), King's College (Columbia), the College of Philadelphia (University of Pennsylvania), the College of Rhode Island (Brown), Queen's College (Rutgers), and Dartmouth College.

Except for the College of William and Mary, these colleges were all in New England and the Middle Colonies. In the Southern colonies, families believed they were responsible for educating their children. Wealthy families either hired tutors from Britain or sent their children to school in England. By the 1700s, college students in the colonies also began to work as tutors.

Most New England towns had public schools for boys. However, public schooling was rare elsewhere. Girls were educated at home or in small private schools. They did not have access to college. Young people wanting to become doctors or lawyers usually learned by working as apprentices for an experienced professional. Some young men went to medical schools in Scotland.

How the Colonies Were Governed

In 1776, there were three types of colonial governments: provincial (royal colony), proprietary, and charter. All these governments were under the British monarch. They had no representatives in the Parliament of Great Britain. The Board of Trade in London oversaw the administration of all British colonies starting in the late 1600s.

A provincial colony was governed by officials chosen by the king. The king appointed a governor and his council. The governor had executive powers and could call a local elected assembly. The governor's council also served as an upper house when the assembly met. Assemblies were made up of representatives elected by landowners. The governor could veto laws and delay or dissolve the assembly. The assembly's job was to make local laws, as long as they did not conflict with British laws. However, many assemblies tried to gain more power and limit the governor's power. British officials could also review and veto colonial laws. New Hampshire, New York, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia were royal colonies. Massachusetts became a royal colony in the late 1600s.

Proprietary colonies were governed much like royal colonies. However, a lord proprietor (an individual or family) appointed the governor instead of the king. These colonies were set up after 1660 and often had more civil and religious freedom. Pennsylvania (which included Delaware), New Jersey, and Maryland were proprietary colonies.

Charter governments were political groups created by special documents called letters patent. These documents gave them control of the land and the power to make laws. The charters provided a basic constitution and divided powers among legislative, executive, and judicial roles. Massachusetts, Providence Plantation, Rhode Island, Warwick, and Connecticut were charter colonies. The Massachusetts charter was changed in 1691. Providence Plantations merged with other settlements to form the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, which also became a charter colony in 1636.

Britain's Role in Governing

After 1680, the British government in London became more interested in the colonies. The colonies were growing quickly in population and wealth. In 1680, only Virginia was a royal colony. By 1720, half of the colonies were controlled by royal governors. These governors were closely connected to the government in London.

Historians before the 1880s focused on American nationalism. Later historians, known as the "Imperial school," emphasized Britain's attention to the colonies. They often praised the economic benefits of the empire. This view suggested there was no threat of revolt before the 1770s.

Colonial Politics and Voting

Settlers did not come to America planning to create a democracy. However, they quickly created a system where many people could vote. Unlike Europe, there were no inherited aristocrats in the 13 colonies. There were also no wealthy landowners who rented out all the farmland to tenants, as in England. Instead, there was a local political system run by elected men.

The colonies offered more voting rights than Britain or other countries. Any property owner could vote for members of the lower house of the legislature. Governors were appointed in London, but colonists elected the governor in Connecticut and Rhode Island. Women, children, indentured servants, and enslaved people could not vote. Native Americans and free black people were usually outside the political system and could not vote.

Voters needed to own property. In Britain, most men were controlled by their landlords. London insisted on property ownership for voting in the colonies. However, good farmland was cheap and widely owned in most places. So, 50% to 80% of men were eligible to vote.

Historian Donald Radcliffe noted that voting rights were very widespread among adult white males. The percentage varied, but it was generally higher than in England. However, as the revolution approached, property ownership was falling. The proportion of adult white males eligible to vote was probably less than 60 percent.

Colonial politics often involved respecting local important people. But sometimes these leaders competed and had to ask ordinary people for votes. There were no political parties. People running for office formed temporary groups with family, friends, and neighbors. Election day was a big event. Men from the countryside came to town to celebrate, talk politics, meet friends, and hear speeches. They would drink, eat, and gamble. They voted by shouting their choice to a clerk, while supporters cheered or booed. Candidates knew they had to treat their supporters well.

Voting was voluntary, and usually about half of eligible men voted. Turnout was often higher in Pennsylvania and New York. There, long-standing groups based on ethnic and religious backgrounds encouraged more people to vote. New York and Rhode Island developed two-group political systems that lasted for years at the colony level. These groups were based on leaders' personalities and family connections, not on specific policies. Elsewhere, politics changed often, based more on personalities than lasting groups or major disagreements.

The colonies were independent of each other before 1774. Each colony started as a separate settlement. Efforts to form a colonial union, like the Albany Congress in 1754 led by Benjamin Franklin, had failed. All thirteen colonies had strong systems of self-government and elections. These were based on the Rights of Englishmen, which they were determined to protect from British interference.

How the Economy Worked

The British Empire at the time used a system called mercantilism. This meant all trade was kept within the Empire, and trade with other empires was forbidden. The goal was to make Britain, its merchants, and its government rich. Whether this policy was good for the colonists was not a concern in London. However, Americans became increasingly unhappy with mercantilist policies.

Mercantilism meant the government and merchants worked together to increase political power and wealth. They kept other empires out through trade barriers, rules, and support for British industries. This was to maximize exports from Britain and minimize imports. The government had to fight smuggling, which became a common way for Americans to avoid trade restrictions with the French, Spanish, or Dutch. The goal of mercantilism was to create trade surpluses, so gold and silver would flow into London. The government took its share through duties and taxes. The rest went to British merchants. The government used much of its money to build a strong Royal Navy. This navy protected British colonies and sometimes seized colonies from other empires. For example, the British Navy captured New Amsterdam (New York) in 1664.

The colonies were forced markets for British goods. The goal was to enrich Britain. Colonial goods were shipped on British ships to Britain. Britain then sold them to Europe, profiting from the export trade. Finished goods were made in Britain and sold in the colonies, or imported by Britain for sale to the colonies. This also profited Britain. Like other colonial empires, Britain's production of goods relied on forced labor. As observed in the 1720s, "all this great increase in our treasure proceeds chiefly from the labour of negroes" in Britain's colonies.

Britain enforced mercantilism by trying to block American trade with the French, Spanish, or Dutch empires using the Navigation Acts. Americans often tried to avoid these acts. British officials responded to smuggling with special search warrants called Writs of Assistance. In 1761, Boston lawyer James Otis argued that these writs violated the colonists' constitutional rights. He lost the case, but John Adams later wrote, "Then and there the child Independence was born."

However, colonists were careful to say they did not oppose British rules on their external trade. They only opposed laws that affected them internally.

Travel and Trade Routes

Most transportation happened by water. However, a network of roads also existed in the colonies. Because water travel was common, a large shipbuilding industry grew, especially in New England. Rivers were used for transportation.

Most roads were along the Atlantic Coast and connected cities. Some individual colonies built their own road networks. By 1764, a stagecoach route connected Philadelphia and New York City. By 1773, the stagecoach network reached Providence and Boston.

Other British Lands in America

Some of the British colonies in North America, c. 1750

Newfoundland
Nova Scotia
Thirteen Colonies
Bermuda
Bahamas
British Honduras
Jamaica
British Leeward Islands and Barbados

Besides the group that became known as the "Thirteen Colonies," Britain had about a dozen other colonies in the New World in the late 1700s. These surrounded the 13 colonies. The British West Indies, Newfoundland, the Province of Quebec, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, Bermuda, and East and West Florida remained loyal to Britain during the war. (Spain later got Florida back, then sold it to the United States in 1821). Some other colonies felt sympathy for the Patriot cause. But their isolation and Britain's strong navy prevented them from joining the fight. Britain had only recently acquired some of these lands. Many issues facing the Thirteen Colonies did not apply to them, especially in Quebec and Florida.

Thirteen Colonies facts for kids

Contents