Tetrabiblos facts for kids
Opening page of Tetrabiblos: 15th-century Latin printed edition of the 12th-century translation of Plato of Tivoli; published in Venice by Erhard Ratdolt, 1484.
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| Author | Claudius Ptolemy |
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| Original title | Apotelesmatika |
| Language | Greek |
| Subject | Astrology |
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Publication date
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2nd century |
The Tetrabiblos (which means "Four Books" in Greek) is a very old and important book about astrology. It was also known as Apotelesmatiká ("On the effects") or Quadripartitum in Latin ("Four Parts"). This book was written by a famous scholar named Claudius Ptolemy in ancient Greek around 160 AD. Ptolemy lived in Alexandria, a big city in ancient Egypt.
Ptolemy also wrote another very famous book called Almagest, which was about astronomy (the study of stars and planets). The Almagest was used as the main astronomy textbook for over a thousand years! The Tetrabiblos was like its partner book, but it focused on astrology. Astrology is the study of how the movements of planets and stars might affect things on Earth.
Even though our understanding of astronomy has changed a lot since Ptolemy's time (we now know the Earth goes around the Sun, not the other way around!), the Tetrabiblos is still a very important book for people who study the history of astrology. It helped explain why astrology was seen as a natural and helpful study. This made it more accepted in Western Europe during the Medieval era and the Renaissance. It even influenced medical studies and literature back then! Many old books and translations have been made about the Tetrabiblos, showing how important it was.
Contents
- What is the Tetrabiblos about?
- What are the book's names and when was it written?
- Book I: Basic Ideas and Methods
- Book II: Astrology for Countries and Events
- Book III: Individual Horoscopes (Inner Qualities)
- Book IV: Individual Horoscopes (Outside Events)
- How the Tetrabiblos was copied and translated
- Other important texts
- See also
- Images for kids
What is the Tetrabiblos about?
Ptolemy is often called "the most famous of Greek astrologers." His Tetrabiblos was almost like a "Bible" for astrologers for over a thousand years. It was written in Alexandria in the 2nd century AD. People started writing comments about it right away. In the 9th century, it was translated into Arabic, becoming a huge influence on Islamic astrology.
Later, in the 12th century, the Tetrabiblos was translated into Latin. This helped Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas connect "Ptolemaic astrology" with Christian ideas. Because of this, astrology based on Ptolemy's teachings was even taught in universities, often alongside medical studies. This also influenced writers like Dante, shaping how people thought about the world in the Medieval era. The Tetrabiblos set many of the main ideas for Renaissance astrology and was a required textbook in some top universities.
Ptolemaic astrology was taught in European universities until the 17th century. But then, people started to see it less as a respected science and more as a "diabolical art." One critic in the 1600s even said it was "fitted to forward the aims of the devil."
However, the Tetrabiblos still matters today. Scholars who study classical philosophy and the history of ancient science still look at its impact on world culture. It's also still an important book for people who practice modern Western astrology. Many English translations have been published over the years. A famous astrologer from the early 1900s, Dane Rudhyar, said that astrology in his time came "almost entirely" from Ptolemy's work. Even today, astrology textbooks say the Tetrabiblos is "indispensable" for serious students of astrology.
The book's lasting importance comes from a few things: Ptolemy's fame as a great thinker, the book being one of the oldest complete guides to astrology, and Ptolemy's clear and organized explanations.
Ptolemy's astrology was shaped by the scientific ideas of his time. He wrote when "physics" was part of philosophy. He explained how stars affect things using the idea of four basic qualities: hot, cold, wet, and dry. He also connected it to the idea of a universal unity and cosmic harmony. He wanted to explain astrology logically. He also ignored astrological practices that didn't have a direct connection to astronomy.
We will ignore the silly things many people waste their time on, which cannot even be explained. Instead, we will focus on the main natural causes. We will investigate using the science of how stars relate to places they are familiar with, not by using random lots and numbers that make no sense.
The book starts by explaining the ideas behind astrology. It tries to answer critics who doubted if astrology was real. Lynn Thorndike, a historian, wrote that only those who didn't know the Tetrabiblos kept making criticisms that Ptolemy had already answered.
Ptolemy didn't invent the astrological methods in the Tetrabiblos. His main contribution was to organize them in a clear way. He wanted to show that astrology followed logical rules. He often linked astrological effects to changes in weather, which he believed came from celestial cycles affecting the hot, cold, wet, and dry qualities of the air.
The many old books, comments, and translations about the Tetrabiblos show its historical importance. The original Greek text was translated into Arabic, Latin, and many modern languages. The first English translation didn't appear until the 1700s. By the late 1800s, one American astrologer, Luke Broughton, said he had at least six different English translations!
What are the book's names and when was it written?
The common names, Tetrabiblos (Greek) and Quadripartitum (Latin), both mean "four books." These are like nicknames. In some old Greek copies, the full title was "Mathematical treatise in four books." The editor of a 1940 English translation, Frank Eggleston Robbins, thought this might have been Ptolemy's own title.
However, other Greek copies use the title "The prognostics addressed to Syrus." An old comment on the book even said that some people thought Tetrabiblos was a made-up name.
Wolfgang Hübner, who edited a Greek version in 1998, used the title Apotelesmatiká, meaning "(books on) effects." This name is now used by many scholars. Alexander Jones, another editor, thinks Ptolemy's real title is still unknown, but agrees Apotelesmatiká is a "credible guess." This word means "influences," "effects," or "predictions," which fits the book's goal of predicting things based on astronomical cycles.
We don't have an exact date for when the Tetrabiblos was written. But Ptolemy says in his introduction that he wrote it after finishing his astronomy book, the Almagest. We know the Almagest wasn't finished before about 145 AD. This means Ptolemy wrote the Tetrabiblos later in his life, probably between 145 AD and his death around 168 AD.
Book I: Basic Ideas and Methods
How Ptolemy starts his book
The book begins with Ptolemy talking to "Syrus," a person he dedicated all his works to. Ptolemy explains that there are two types of astronomical study. The first is pure astronomy, which finds out how planets and stars move. The second is astrology, which looks at the changes these movements cause. He says astronomy is good on its own, but it becomes even more useful when combined with astrology. This shows Ptolemy believed astronomy and astrology worked together. Even though the words astronomia and astrologia were sometimes used for the same thing back then, Ptolemy clearly separated them into two different books.
Ptolemy says that since he already covered astronomy in another book, he will now explain astrology. He admits that astrological predictions are very hard and can easily be wrong. But he also believes they are possible for skilled people and too helpful to ignore just because they can sometimes be mistaken.
Ptolemy's thoughts on astrology
Chapters 2 and 3 are important because they show Ptolemy's philosophical defense of astrology. He used ideas from older thinkers, especially the Stoic philosopher Posidonius. Later philosophers and astronomers, like Johannes Kepler, also used Ptolemy's arguments to explain astrology. Some modern experts praise these chapters as "perfectly laudable," while others say Ptolemy "misused" his knowledge here.
Ptolemy says that people had two main problems with astrology:
- It's too complicated to give reliable predictions.
- If predictions are reliable, it means everything is fated to happen, making astrology useless (because if the future is set, why predict it?).
Ptolemy then answers these criticisms.
- Can astrology be reliable?
In chapter two, Ptolemy argues that we can gain knowledge from astronomy. He explains how the Sun greatly influences Earth's seasons and daily cycles. He also notes how the Moon affects many things on Earth, like rivers and tides.
...the Moon, being closest to Earth, sends out its influence most strongly. Many things, living or not, are connected to it and change with it. Rivers grow and shrink with its light, seas have tides with its rising and setting, and plants and animals grow and decline with it.
He says that fixed stars and planets also affect weather and the behavior of living things. These celestial bodies cause changes in elements (like hot, windy, snowy, or watery conditions). The Sun leads, the Moon activates, and planets and fixed stars help. The weather at a certain time and place is thought to create a "temperament" or "imprint" on anything that starts growing or appearing then. Ptolemy admits it's hard to analyze this temperament, but it's possible for someone who is both scientific and good at guessing. He asks why, if someone can predict weather and its effects on plants and animals from celestial cycles, they can't also:
...for an individual person, understand the general quality of their nature from the surroundings at their birth... and predict events, by knowing that certain surroundings match certain natures and lead to good things, while others do not and lead to harm?
Ptolemy believes these arguments show astrology is valid. But he also knows that many mistakes are made. This is partly because some people pretend to be astrologers without real knowledge, and partly because real astrologers need a lot of knowledge and experience. He concludes that astrology usually gives general knowledge. Astrological advice should be welcomed but not expected to be perfect. And astrologers should consider other information, like a person's background, not just the stars.
Is astrology natural and helpful?
In chapter three, Ptolemy argues that astrological prediction is both natural and good. When these ideas were translated into Latin in the 12th century, they were very important for making astrology more accepted in Christianity.
Ptolemy first says it's not "useless" to predict what might happen, even if you can't stop bad things. Some critics, like Cicero, argued that warnings of disaster are pointless if you can't escape them. But Ptolemy sees astrology as a way to "gain full view of things human and divine." He believes it helps people understand "what is fitting and useful for each person's nature." He thinks astrology helps with self-knowledge and brings pleasure. Even if it can't make you rich or famous, he says the same is true for all philosophy, which focuses on "greater advantages." So, even for unavoidable bad events, Ptolemy says astrological prediction helps because "knowing beforehand calms the soul by making distant events feel present, and prepares it to face whatever comes with calm and steadiness."
Ptolemy then addresses the idea that prediction means fatalism (that everything is predetermined). This was important for later religious acceptance, as Medieval religious ideas said people must have free will to be responsible for their choices. Ptolemy argues that while celestial cycles are fixed and "eternally performed in accordance with divine, unchangeable destiny," things on Earth are also subject to "a natural and changeable fate." He says nothing is completely set in stone. We shouldn't think that "events happen to people because of the heavenly cause as if... destined to happen by necessity without any other cause interfering."
Ptolemy makes a point that many later astrologers used: "the lesser cause always yields to the stronger." He means that an individual can't resist bigger changes happening to their community. So, a person whose horoscope shows good fortune might still die if their community is hit by a disaster. However, Ptolemy also says that bad events will only happen if no action is taken to stop them. He takes a balanced view on fate versus free will. He says some things are unavoidable because they have many causes, but others can be avoided if predicted. He compares an astrologer to a doctor who must know which illnesses are always fatal and which can be helped.
So, Ptolemy believes it's smart to adjust our actions based on how current and future conditions affect our nature. Or to choose a time that is astrologically good for an activity. Just like it's smart to use star knowledge for safe sea travel, or lunar cycles for good farming, or to cool ourselves when it's hot.
Ptolemy's conclusion, which helped astrology stay respected until the 1700s, is: "even if it be not entirely perfect, at least its possibilities have appeared worthy of the highest regard." After explaining why he studied astrology, Ptolemy then moves on to the practical side of it.
How Ptolemy explains astrological principles
One special thing about the Tetrabiblos is how its first book not only introduces basic astrological ideas but also explains the reasons behind them using Aristotle's philosophy. For example, chapter four explains the "power of the planets" by linking them to qualities like warmth, moisture, cold, or dryness. So, Mars is seen as a destructive planet because it's linked to too much dryness. Jupiter, however, is seen as balanced and fertile because it's linked to moderate warmth and moisture. These links are based on how planets appear from Earth, assuming Earth is the center of the universe (the geocentric perspective).
Ptolemy then groups the planets into pairs of opposites. They can be benefic (moderately warming or moistening) or malefic (too cooling or drying). They can be masculine (drying) or feminine (moistening). And they can be active and diurnal (like the Sun) or passive and nocturnal (like the Moon). Chapter eight explains how these qualities change slightly depending on each planet's phase with the Sun.
Chapter nine talks about the "power of the fixed stars." Instead of direct qualities, Ptolemy describes their "temperatures" as being like certain planets. For example, Aldebaran is said to have a "temperature like that of Mars." Ptolemy says these ideas come from older sources, not his own proposals.
Chapter ten goes back to the idea of qualities, explaining that the zodiac is linked to the seasons. This shows how moisture, warmth, dryness, and cold change through spring, summer, autumn, and winter. Similarly, the four angles of the chart are linked to the four cardinal winds. The rest of Book One explains the rules, divisions, and arrangements of the zodiac signs. Most of these are based on astronomy, seasonal effects, physics, and geometry. Geometrical rules are used to decide if aspects (angles between planets) are good or bad.
In Ptolemy's time, the zodiac signs were close to the visible constellations they were named after. But Ptolemy explained that the zodiac's starting point is fixed not to the stars, but to the mathematically calculated vernal equinox. This creates the seasonally based tropical zodiac. This zodiac slowly moves through the visible constellations over time because of precession.
Other ancient astrologers focused on the astrological meaning of these definitions. But Ptolemy focused more on the astronomical and philosophical reasons behind them. He explains that the zodiac definitions are not his own, but "the natural characters of the zodiacal signs, as they have been handed down by tradition." He is very logical when explaining things like the philosophical reasons behind planetary rulership of signs. But he seems less interested in parts of astrology that rely on mythological or symbolic meanings. He also explains different astrological ideas without saying which one he prefers.
Some people think Ptolemy's detached approach means he was more interested in the theory of astrology than actually practicing it. However, his objective style, his claim that astrology is natural, and his respect for different views helped his book become known as intellectually superior. Mark Riley, a scholar, said Ptolemy approached astrology with the same scientific mindset he used for astronomy and geography. Riley concluded that astrologers respected Ptolemy's work not because it was easy to use, but because he combined astrology and science so well.
Book II: Astrology for Countries and Events
Book II of the Tetrabiblos is about mundane astrology. This is a type of astrology that predicts events for whole countries, like national economies, wars, diseases, natural disasters, and weather. Ptolemy's book is unique because no other ancient text gives so much detail on this topic. He writes with great knowledge, suggesting this area was very interesting to him. Modern experts say Ptolemy was trying a "different approach" from the older, more complicated methods.
Ptolemy starts by saying he has covered the main ideas and will now explain the details of astrology in order. He says that to understand an individual's horoscope, you first need to know the general nature of their ethnic group. Also, individual lives are somewhat affected by what happens to their community.
Chapter two broadly explains how physical differences appear among people in different climes (areas based on latitude). For example, people near the equator are described as having dark skin and thick hair to protect them from the heat. People in northern regions are described as paler, taller, and having finer hair due to the colder, wetter environment. Both extremes are seen as less civilized, while people in temperate regions are described as having moderate coloring and a more balanced lifestyle. Ptolemy says these are general observations, not true for every single person.
In chapter 3, Ptolemy connects astrology and geography. He describes the astrological links of "our inhabited world." Maps based on Ptolemy's Geographica show his known world stretching from the equator to about 66°N latitude, covering land between the Atlantic Ocean and East China Sea. Ptolemy uses an old Babylonian idea where the four parts of the world are linked to the four triplicity arrangements of the zodiac. This link is based on the planets that rule these triplicities and the directions and winds they are associated with. For example, the 'Aries triplicity' (Aries, Leo, and Sagittarius) is mainly ruled by Jupiter and Mars. Jupiter rules the north wind, and Mars the west wind. So, this triplicity governs the north-west part of Ptolemy's "inhabited world," which is Europe.
These divisions are general. The specific rule of each nation is changed by its location and cultural differences. For example, in Europe, only the far north-west regions are fully ruled by Jupiter and Mars. Nations closer to the center are influenced by other regions. So, the "inhabited region" has a gradual shift in astrological connections, not sharp divisions. Independent nations are linked to different zodiac signs and their ruling planets. Ptolemy names Britain and Spain as two nations in the north-west quarter ruled by Jupiter and Mars. He describes such nations as "independent, liberty-loving, fond of arms, industrious," based on the characteristics of those planets. Being mostly ruled by masculine planets, they are also "without passion for women and look down upon the pleasures of love." He categorizes Britain as having a closer link to Aries and Mars, making its people "fiercer, more headstrong and bestial." Spain is more linked to Sagittarius and Jupiter, showing "their independence, simplicity and love of cleanliness."
Ptolemy calls his analysis a "brief exposition," but the chapter becomes a long list of connections between planets, zodiac signs, and the characteristics of 73 nations. He ends with three more important ideas for mundane astrology:
- Each fixed star is connected to the countries linked to the zodiac sign where it rises.
- The founding time of a city or nation can be used like an individual horoscope to find its characteristics and experiences. The most important things are the zodiac signs where the Sun and Moon are, and the four angles of the chart, especially the ascendant.
- If the founding time is unknown, you can use the horoscope of the ruler or king at the time, focusing on the midheaven of that chart.
How eclipses are used
The rest of the book shows how this information is used to predict events for countries. It focuses on eclipses, which Ptolemy calls the "first and most potent" cause of change. He also looks at the 'stations' of the superior planets: Saturn, Jupiter, and Mars. Eclipses are important for any nation linked to the zodiac signs where they happen. But Ptolemy says their effects are strongest where they are visible. The length of the eclipse shows how long its effect will last: each hour of a solar eclipse means a year, and each hour of a lunar eclipse means a month. The eclipse's position relative to the horizon shows if the effects will be strongest at the beginning, middle, or end of that period. Times of stronger effects are found when planets connect to the eclipse degree during this period.
Chapter 7 starts explaining what kind of event will happen. This is judged by the angle of the horizon before the eclipse in the chart for that location. It also depends on the planet(s) that strongly rule or connect to this angle. Whether the predicted effect is good or bad depends on the condition of these planets. The type of event is judged by the zodiac signs, fixed stars, and constellations involved. These predictions are for nations, but Ptolemy says some individuals are more affected than others. These are people who have the Sun or Moon in their horoscopes at the same degree as the eclipse, or the degree directly opposite it.
In his Almagest, Ptolemy mentions he had access to eclipse records going back 900 years to the time of King Nabonassar (747 BC). In chapter 9 of the Tetrabiblos, he shows he knew about the Babylonian beliefs that came with these records. He talks about omens based on visual things like the colors of eclipses and "formations that occur near them, such as rods, halos." He also discusses the astrological meaning of comets, whether they look like "'beams', 'trumpets', 'jars'." Their meaning comes from their position relative to the Sun and the direction their tails point. It's noted that here Ptolemy uses ideas that don't fit his usual logical system. They can only be explained by the old myths and omen traditions he got from his sources. He also defends the subjective nature of this analysis, saying it's impossible to list every outcome. It requires skill and cleverness from the astrologer.
The rest of Book II is about weather. Chapter 10 says that the new or full Moon before the Sun enters Aries can be used to predict the year's weather. Moons before the Sun enters Cancer, Libra, and Capricorn can be used for seasonal weather. And "monthly investigations" give more details based on Moon phases and planet connections. The recorded weather effects of fixed stars in zodiac constellations are discussed. The book ends with the importance of general sky phenomena like shooting stars, clouds, and rainbows. These final ideas add local details to the eclipse predictions. Ptolemy's main point throughout the book is that charts cannot be judged alone. They must be understood within the larger cycles they belong to. He says:
In every case… one should make conclusions based on the idea that the universal and main cause comes first. The cause of specific events is secondary to it. The force is strongest when the stars that rule the universal natures are connected to the specific causes.
Ptolemy closes this book by promising that the next book will explain how to make predictions for individuals based on their horoscopes.
Book III: Individual Horoscopes (Inner Qualities)
Books III and IV of the Tetrabiblos are about "the genethlialogical art." This means interpreting a horoscope made for the exact moment a person is born. Ptolemy explains that there are different life cycles to consider. But the starting point for everything is the time of conception or birth. Conception ("the genesis of the seed") gives clues about events before birth. Birth ("the genesis of the man") is "more perfect" because when a child leaves the womb "under the appropriate conformation of the heavens," their nature, personality, and physical body are set. These two moments are linked by a "very similar causative power." This means the baby's development at conception leads to birth at an astrologically suitable moment. Chapter 2 continues this idea, discussing how important it is to calculate the exact rising degree at birth. It also talks about how hard it is to record local time precisely and how to fix a chart if the time isn't exact (called rectification).
Chapter 3 explains that analyzing a chart involves predicting:
- Basic, inherited qualities from before birth (like family and parental influences).
- Qualities known at birth (like the child's sex and birth defects).
- Qualities known after birth (like how long someone will live, their mind, illnesses, marriage, children, and money).
Ptolemy explains the order in which each topic becomes important. He follows this order in the rest of Books III and IV.
First, he covers prenatal matters: the astrological signs for parents in chapter 4, and siblings in chapter 5. Then he deals with matters "directly concerned with the birth." He explains how to judge if the child will be male or female (ch.6), if there will be twins or multiple children (ch.7), and if there will be physical defects or unusual forms. If so, he looks at whether these come with mental issues, fame, or honor (ch.8).
The discussion of post-natal concerns begins in chapter 9. This looks at astrological factors when children are not raised. It considers stillbirths, babies who seem "half-dead," or those left exposed (and if they might be taken in and live). Chapter 10 then explains how to figure out how long someone will live under normal circumstances. This is a long and important part of the text. It needs very precise astronomical details and advanced knowledge of complex techniques. Jim Tester noted how Ptolemy goes into unusual detail here. This prediction needs both judgment and math skills. Several "destructive" periods might be found, but other protective astrological influences can balance them. This can lead to periods of danger or illness that don't cause death. Chapter 11 follows, explaining how to judge bodily appearance and temperament using astrological principles. Planetary meanings follow their qualities. So, Jupiter (linked to warmth and moisture, which helps growth) gives a large body. Since these qualities also suggest health problems, chapter 12 naturally discusses astrological signs related to injuries and diseases. It lists planetary links to body organs and functions, like Saturn ruling the spleen and Jupiter the lungs. Jim Tester points out that many such lists exist and mostly agree.
The third book ends with chapters 13 and 14, which discuss a "largely overlooked" part of Ptolemy's ideas: the "psychological" one, about the quality of the soul (or psyche). Historian Nicholas Campion says the idea of a connection between celestial and psychological realms goes back to the 6th century BC. Ptolemy's ideas here mix Aristotle's and Stoic philosophy. They are based on the Platonic idea that "the soul comes from the heavens," which explains "how human character comes to be determined by the heavens."
For Ptolemy, the soul includes conscious reasoning, linked to Mercury. It also includes subconscious and unconscious parts of the mind (the "sensory and irrational part"), which are sensitive and linked to the Moon. These two chapters analyze instincts and moral leanings. They focus on psychological reasons and behavior, not the physical temperament described in chapter 11. "Diseases of the soul" are defined as "affections which are utterly disproportionate and as it were pathological." This includes madness, lack of self-control, emotional instability, strange behaviors, and violent problems of the mind. The astrological explanations are mainly linked to the strong influence of destructive planets that are also in difficult positions with Mercury, the Sun, or the Moon, or the planet linked to the psychological impulse (like Venus for love). Campion notes that these planetary links to psychological qualities were not new to Ptolemy. They were in the Corpus Hermeticum, a text circulating in Alexandria when Ptolemy wrote his book.
In this book, Ptolemy has covered all topics related to inner qualities, inherited patterns, predispositions, and natural tendencies from birth. His exploration of individual horoscopes continues into Book IV. The only difference is that later topics relate to material things and life experiences, which Ptolemy calls "external accidentals."
Book IV: Individual Horoscopes (Outside Events)
Book IV starts by briefly confirming the order of topics. It begins with wealth and honor. Ptolemy says: "as material fortune is associated with the properties of the body, so honor belongs to those of the soul." Chapter 2, on material wealth, uses the "so-called 'Lot of Fortune.'" However, Ptolemy's instructions for calculating it differ from many others of his time. He says to measure "from the horoscope the distance from the sun to the moon, in both diurnal and nocturnal nativities." Ptolemy's reputation meant many later Medieval and Renaissance astrologers followed his method. But now we know most Hellenistic astrologers reversed the formula for nocturnal births. It's interesting that in his discussion "Of the fortune of Dignity" in chapter three, Ptolemy doesn't mention the Lot of Spirit (or Daimon). This would normally be the spiritual opposite to the material wealth and happiness of the Lot of Fortune. This shows his general dislike (stated in Book III.3) for "lots and numbers of which no reasonable explanation can be given."
The next chapter, called 'Of the Quality of Action,' is about career interests and how to predict success or failure in a job. This is followed by marriage in chapter 5. For a man's chart, the Moon is mainly used to describe his wife. For a woman's chart, the Sun describes her husband. Here, Ptolemy uses a technique called synastry. This is where the planet positions in two different horoscopes are compared to see if a relationship will be harmonious or difficult.
The next four chapters finish the discussion of birth chart themes. They cover children (ch.6); friends and enemies (ch.7); the dangers of foreign travel (ch.8); and the type of death (ch.9 – different from the time of death discussed in III.10).
The final chapter is a bit unusual because it introduces a new topic at the end of the book. It talks about the seven 'ages of man.' Ptolemy briefly mentioned this in Book III.1, saying that astrological influences change depending on a person's age. He argues that just as an astrologer must consider cultural differences (like not predicting marriage with a sister for an Italian, but for an Egyptian), it's important to consider a person's age when important astrological events happen. This helps make sure predictions "harmonize those details which are contemplated in temporal terms with that which is suitable and possible for persons in the various age-classes." This avoids predicting things like marriage for a young child or having children for a very old man. This leads to a discussion of the planetary themes for the seven ages of life:
...for likeness and comparison depends upon the order of the seven planets; it begins with the first age of man and with the first sphere from us, that is, the moon's, and ends with the last of the ages and the outermost of the planetary spheres, which is called that of Saturn.
The information in this section can be summarized as follows:
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The book ends with a short discussion of astronomical and symbolic cycles used to predict timed events. This includes mentions of directions, annual progressions, ingresses, lunations, and transits.
The translator of the 1940 English translation, F. E. Robbins, found a "puzzling problem" with the book's final paragraph. Some old copies either end abruptly or have text that matches an Anonymous Paraphrase of the work. Other copies have similar content but are longer, matching versions translated through Arabic. Robbins believed the ending matching the Paraphrase was not original. Robert Schmidt, another English translator, agreed.
Robbins explained that ancient books often lacked clear endings when compiled as a codex (like a modern book) instead of a roll. Since the Paraphrase aimed to simplify Ptolemy's difficult writing, Robbins thought it unlikely that someone would make the simpler Paraphrase text more complicated to match the longer ending. So, he offered both endings but supported the one found in the Arabic version. This ending has Ptolemy declaring, "since the topic of nativities has been summarily reviewed, it would be well to bring this procedure also to a fitting close."
How the Tetrabiblos was copied and translated
No original copies of Ptolemy's own manuscript exist today. We know its contents from translations, small pieces, simplified copies, comments, and later Greek manuscripts. Deborah Houlding, an astrology researcher, suggests that differences in the text come from three main ways it was passed down: through Arabic translations, through a simplified version (paraphrase), and through later Greek manuscripts that were not translated out of Greek.
Arabic translations
The oldest surviving copy is an Arabic translation from the 9th century by Hunayn ibn Ishaq. This was translated into Latin in Barcelona by Plato de Tivoli in 1138. It became very important as the first full introduction of Ptolemy's astrological work in Medieval Europe. At least nine copies and five Renaissance printed versions of this translation still exist.
Other Latin translations from Arabic sources include an unpublished work from 1206 and another from the 13th century by Egidio Tebaldi. These Latin translations from Arabic texts usually came with comments written by Ali ibn Ridwan (Haly) in the 11th century.
Egidio Tebaldi's translation was first printed by Erhard Ratdolt in 1484. It included Haly's comments and a list of 100 astrological sayings called the Centiloquium, which was wrongly thought to be by Ptolemy.
Simplified versions (Paraphrases)
An anonymous Greek simplified version is thought to be by the 5th-century philosopher Proclus. It's often called the Proclus' Paraphrase, but its true author is uncertain. The content of the Paraphrase is similar to the Tetrabiblos but uses simpler language to make it "more easily understandable."
There is no modern critical edition of this text. The oldest surviving copy is from the 10th century and is in the Vatican Library. Some of the Paraphrase text was published with a Latin translation by Philipp Melanchthon in 1554, but it wasn't widely spread. A full copy with a Latin translation was made around 1630 by Leo Allatius and published in Leiden in 1635, seemingly without Allatius's permission.
Allatius's Latin translation was the source for all English translations of the Tetrabiblos before Robbins's edition in 1940. These include translations by John Whalley (1701), Ebenezer Sibly (1786), J.M. Ashmand (1822), James Wilson (1828), and other privately circulated manuscripts from the 1800s.
Greek manuscripts
Even though Ptolemy's original manuscript is gone, other ancient works, like Hephaistio's Apotelesmatics I, describe or copy some parts of it. These have helped confirm disputed areas of the text.
The oldest fairly complete Greek manuscript of the Tetrabiblos (not the simplified version) is from the 13th century. Two or three others are from the 14th century, but most are from the 15th and 16th centuries. In his 1940 translation, Frank Eggleston Robbins said there were at least 35 manuscripts containing all or most of the Tetrabiblos in European libraries.
The first printed edition was made in 1535 with a Latin translation by the German scholar Joachim Camerarius. This was reprinted in 1553 and is important because it was the first Latin translation based on a Greek source, not an Arabic one. Robbins used the 1553 edition for his English translation.
Also in 1940, a Greek critical edition was published in Germany by Teubner. It was based on the unpublished work of Franz Boll and finished by Emilie Boer. Robbins regretted not being able to use this edition for his translation.
In 1994, the 'Boll-Boer' edition became the basis for an English translation by Robert Schmidt. He argued for a new English translation that recognized the "probable superiority of the Teubner text edited by Boll and Boer in 1940."
The most recent critical edition of the Greek text was made by Professor Wolfgang Hübner in 1998. It used 33 complete and 14 partial manuscripts, and also included notes from Boer and ideas from the Robbins and Boll-Boer editions. This is now considered the most reliable edition. A reviewer said, "Progress over previous editions is evident on virtually every page."
- Translators of the Tetrabiblos and associated texts
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Joachim Camerarius (1500–1574). He translated the first printed Greek edition of the Tetrabiblos.
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Hieronymus Wolf (1516–1580). He translated the first printed Latin edition of the Commentary.
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Leo Allatius (1585–1669). He translated the first printed Greek edition of the Paraphrase.
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Franz Boll (1867–1924). He translated (with Boer) the Teubner Greek edition (1940) of the Tetrabiblos.
Other important texts
The Centiloquium
The Centiloquium (meaning "one hundred sayings") was a common Latin name for a collection of 100 important astrological aphorisms (short, wise sayings). It was also known as Liber Fructus in Latin, meaning "Book of the Fruit." This name came from the belief that it summarized Ptolemy's main astrological ideas, offering "The Fruit of his Four Books." It began, like all Ptolemy's works, with a dedication to "Syrus," which helped people believe it was truly written by Ptolemy.
Early copies of the Centiloquium often came with comments by Ahmad ibn Yusuf al-Misri (835–912). This text was translated into Latin at the same time as the Arabic versions of the Tetrabiblos. The earliest translations were by Johannes Hispanensis in 1136 and Plato of Tivoli in 1138.
Ali ibn Ridwan (Haly), who wrote comments on Ptolemy's work, noticed that the sayings in the Centiloquium focused on horary astrology (answering questions based on a chart for the moment the question is asked). He wondered why Ptolemy hadn't included these ideas in his Tetrabiblos. Jerome Cardan was the first to say the work was a fake because of these differences. He quoted Galen: "In the old days, kings who were trying to establish great libraries bought the books of famous men at very high prices. By doing so they caused men to ascribe their own works to the ancients."
The Centiloquium is now thought to be written by "Pseudo-Ptolemy" (meaning someone pretending to be Ptolemy). Some scholars think Ahmad ibn Yusuf was the real author. Others believe that even if Ptolemy didn't write it, the Centiloquium might contain some real ideas from Hellenistic astrology. In the end, the historical belief that the Centiloquium was part of Ptolemy's work gave it wide influence in the medieval period, making it an important text in astrology.
See also
- Babylonian astronomy – ancient sources that influenced Ptolemy
- Greek astronomy – astronomy during Ptolemy's time
- Ptolemy's world map – a map of the ancient world as described by Ptolemy
Images for kids
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Opening page of Tetrabiblos: 15th-century Latin printed edition of the 12th-century translation of Plato of Tivoli; published in Venice by Erhard Ratdolt, 1484.
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Quadripartitum, 1622
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16th-century woodcut depicting Ptolemy, from Les vrais portraits et vies des hommes illustres, Paris, 1584, f°87.
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Opening chapter of the first printed edition of Ptolemy's Tetrabiblos, transcribed into Greek and Latin by Joachim Camerarius (Nuremberg, 1535).
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15th-century manuscript illustration of astronomy as one of the seven liberal arts, showing Ptolemy as its patron.
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Figure of the heavenly bodies — An illustration of the Ptolemaic geocentric system by Portuguese cosmographer and cartographer Bartolomeu Velho, 1568 (Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris).
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Ptolemy instructing Regiomontanus under an image of the zodiac encircling the celestial spheres. Frontispiece from Ptolemy's Almagest, (Venice, 1496).
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15th-century map depicting Ptolemy's description of the inhabited world, (1482, Johannes Schnitzer).
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Depiction of Ptolemy employing a quadrant, from Giordano Ziletti's Principles of astrology and geography according to Ptolemy, 1564.
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Byzantine reproduction of a Greek horoscope attributed to the philosopher Eutocius, 497 A.D.
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Ptolemy's geocentric celestial spheres; Peter Apian's Cosmographia (1539)
