Black Hawk War (1865–1872) facts for kids
Quick facts for kids Black Hawk War |
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| Part of the Ute Wars, Apache Wars, Navajo Wars | |||||||
 A Ute warrior and his bride in 1874, photograph by John K. Hillers. |
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 United States |
Ute Southern Paiute Navajo Apache |
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The Black Hawk War (also called Black Hawk's War) was a series of battles and raids. It took place from 1865 to 1872. The main groups involved were Mormon settlers and several Native American tribes. These tribes included the Ute, Southern Paiute, Apache, and Navajo. The conflict happened mostly in central and southern Utah. It was led by a Ute war chief named Antonga Black Hawk.
This war caused some settlements to be abandoned. It also slowed down the growth of Mormon communities in the area. The most intense fighting happened between 1865 and 1867. However, smaller conflicts continued until 1872. That's when federal troops stepped in. The Utah Territory spent a lot of money on the war. They later asked the United States government to pay them back.
Contents
Why the Black Hawk War Started
The exact reasons for the Black Hawk War are not fully known. It seems the war didn't start because of one single event. Instead, it was a series of problems that built up over time. Both the Native Americans and the settlers wanted the land. By the time the war began, each side likely felt they could no longer live together peacefully.
They had tried to live in peace since 1849. That's when Mormon pioneers settled in Manti. They joined the Sanpits tribe in the Sanpete valley. But within a few years, small acts of fighting happened on both sides. These led up to the war. In 1865, an incident involving Jake Arapeen and John Lowry Jr. in Manti officially started the open fighting.
Land and Resources
Native American tribes had lived in Utah for centuries. They knew how to survive its harsh climate. But white settlers began to take over their traditional hunting and gathering areas. Mormon towns, farms, and livestock pushed the Ute bands out. This caused some Ute groups to face starvation. Sometimes, Native Americans took cattle or horses from settlers. They saw this as a form of "rent" for the land the settlers were using.
During the war, Chief Black Hawk and his allies took thousands of livestock. They moved them out of Utah Territory. They sold or traded them for goods and money. Some people believe Black Hawk thought that taking livestock was the fastest way to stop settlements from growing.
Cultural Differences
Many problems between Mormons and Utes came from different cultures. Settlers did not accept Native American culture. Native Americans did not accept the settlers' ideas of owning land. Native American culture often included sharing resources like cattle. Settlers' culture involved buying and selling land. It seemed hard for them to live together and find a middle ground.
Settlers' Viewpoint
From the Mormon settlers' side, they had reasons for the conflict. They had been forced out of other states because of their religious beliefs. They came to Utah to find a safe place to practice their faith. As they took more land, they saw the Utes as a threat to their new communities. In 1849, Chief Walker had offered land to the settlers. They believed this meant the land now belonged to them.
This misunderstanding grew worse because of Mormon beliefs about Native Americans. Settlers began moving onto land used by tribes. They damaged pastures because they didn't understand Native American farming methods. This led to some tribes starving. This caused them to take horses or livestock from the settlers.
On April 8, 1865, Ute war chief Black Hawk and Chief Jake Arapeen met in Manti. Settlers expected them to discuss 15 cattle that had been killed. But Arapeen demanded payment for his father's death from smallpox. Utes believed settlers used magic to harm natives. Settler John Lowry, an interpreter, believed in peace. But he also felt settlers needed to punish those who took cattle or harmed friends. Lowry grabbed Arapeen during an argument. Arapeen was badly beaten. This incident, after years of tension, helped start the war.
Utes' Viewpoint
Chief Walkara shared the Ute perspective in 1853. He said he always opposed white settlers on Native American lands. He explained that Mormons were friendly at first. They promised friendship and comfort. But once they grew strong in numbers, their behavior changed. They treated Native Americans badly. They drove them from place to place. Settlements were built on all their hunting grounds. Even the graves of their ancestors were disturbed.
Many attacks by Native Americans were in response to broken promises or mistreatment. These problems happened constantly between 1849 and 1873. The incident at Manti was not the only cause. It was the last event that built up anger and frustration since 1849.
Other events included the killing of Black Hawk's family in 1849. Also, 70 of his relatives were killed at Fort Utah in 1850. The Bear River Massacre in 1863 and the "Squaw Fight" in 1865 also added to the anger. A drought in 1864 and food shortages also caused problems. The U.S. Indian agent failed to provide enough supplies to Utes on the new Uintah Reservation. Many native groups faced starvation. Ute leaders, especially Chief Black Hawk, knew their way of life was ending. They felt that being forced onto "reservations" was like a death sentence. Black Hawk was deeply troubled by his people's hunger, sickness, and high death rate on the reservations. Tribes were often given the worst land in Utah. This made it impossible to raise livestock or farm.
Black Hawk had personally experienced the settlers' distrust. He had been beaten for a supposed theft. His family members had been killed. He had been forced to lead Mormon militia against his own people. Other Native Americans also suffered greatly from the white settlers.
Key Events of the War
There were over 100 separate attacks, raids, and killings between April 1865 and October 1872. These make up the events of the Black Hawk War in Utah.
The first attack happened in Manti on April 10. Black Hawk led sixteen Utes to take a cattle herd outside Manti. Young men rode out and were shot at. One young man was killed. The Utes took forty cattle and drove them away.
On April 12, 84 militia men, led by Colonel Reddick Allred, went after them. They thought the Native Americans would run away. But the Utes ambushed them in a narrow canyon. The militia panicked and retreated quickly. They left one wounded man and one body behind. Allred was replaced by Colonel Warren S. Snow.
The Bear River Massacre
The massacre at Bear River happened on January 29, 1863. It was not part of the Black Hawk War itself. However, it may have influenced Native Americans in Utah. Five hundred thirty-one Shoshone people were killed by the U.S. Army. This happened under the command of Colonel Patrick Edward Connor. The troops burned Native American lodges and took their food and horses.
Treaty of Spanish Fork
Brigham Young wanted to settle the conflict between settlers and Utes. In June 1865, he called a meeting at Spanish Fork's Indian Farm. Old Ute chiefs like Sowiette, Tabby, Antero, and Kanosh came. Black Hawk's brother, Mountain, also attended. About 500 Utes came to see what would happen.
The U.S. government offered a treaty. It asked the Utes to give up all their land in Utah. They would only keep the Uintah Basin. All attacks on settlers had to stop. In return, the government promised annual payments to the tribe. They also promised money for improvements in the Uintah Basin and a vocational school. They offered mills and homes for those who signed.
The chiefs met privately with Brigham Young. He urged them to accept the treaty. He saw it as a way to help the Ute people. Most chiefs agreed and signed the treaty on June 8, 1865. Chief Sanpitch refused to sign. He wanted to keep things as they had been. It's important to know that these treaties were never officially approved by the U.S. government. Only the U.S. government could make official treaties with Native Peoples.
The Squaw Fight
After the Spanish Fork Treaty, tensions grew. Settlers were killed, and livestock was stolen. Orson Hyde, a local leader, ordered the militia to stop the raids. Brigham Young also urged calm. On July 14, 1865, two more men were killed in Glenwood. Over 300 cattle were taken. Brigham Young called out the militia again.
Under Warren Snow, the militia marched to Glenwood. Black Hawk's brother, Mountain, was forced to guide them. He slipped away and warned Black Hawk. The militia found a Ute camp in Grass Valley on July 18. Thirteen Ute men and boys resisted. After a four-hour fight, ten were killed. The rest of the camp were women, children, and old people. This event became known as the 'Squaw Fight'. The militia looted the camp.
The Navajo War was not directly part of the Black Hawk War. But it brought more fighters to Black Hawk's side. Many Navajos joined him, making up almost half his raiders. The Navajo had been badly defeated by the U.S. Army. They were forced from their homes. They wanted to rebuild their herds by taking from white settlers.
Manuelito, an important Navajo chief, led raids with Black Hawk in southern Utah in 1866. Attacks began at Pipe Springs. In response, four unarmed Paiutes were killed. This brought some Paiute fighters to Black Hawk's group. Raids continued in other southern settlements. These attacks led to high tensions. This would result in the worst killing of the war at Circleville.
Manti Jailbreak
To stop Ute resistance, some Ute leaders were arrested. Chief Sanpitch was arrested and held in Manti. He agreed to help hunt down Black Hawk's allies. Several men were captured, tried, and executed in Manti. The remaining Utes in prison planned an escape. Women smuggled tools to them.
On March 20, 1867, five men escaped. Guards shot two of them. The others were tracked down and killed. The next day, a woman and a boy were killed for helping the escapees. Sanpitch and others tried a second escape on April 14. They managed to get out. Sanpitch was wounded but escaped. Manti was in a panic. Sanpitch and four others were found later. Sanpitch was killed on the spot because of his wound. The mountain where he died is now named after him.
Circleville Massacre
By 1866, fighting between Mormons and Native Americans was intense. On April 21, 1866, news came that a Paiute had killed a white man. The people of Circleville were told to protect themselves. They decided to arrest all Paiutes camped nearby. Every man in town went to take the Native Americans into custody.
The Native Americans were taken to Circleville at gunpoint. They were told they would be prisoners. Twenty-six Native Americans were held in the meeting house. The next evening, some tried to escape. Guards shot and killed two. The remaining prisoners were moved to an underground cellar. In a town meeting, settlers decided to kill the remaining prisoners. Twenty-four people were led out of the cellar and executed.
Scipio Raid and the Battle of Gravelly Ford
By June 1866, the threat to settlements grew. Black Hawk threatened to destroy Manti. More militia were sent south. Black Hawk then focused on Scipio. Settlers sent for help. William Pace gathered 20 men to catch Black Hawk. They rode to Salina. He saw the herd heading for Gravelly Ford on the Sevier River. He found about 60 Utes guarding the ford.
Pace sent for more help. He tried to delay the Utes with a long gunfight. He realized he couldn't win and pulled back. Several Utes charged them. Black Hawk himself and his chief Tamaritz were wounded. Black Hawk's horse was shot. The Gunnison militia ran out of ammunition and fled. The Utes drove the herd across the river. The wounding of Black Hawk and Tamaritz eventually led to the end of the war.
Battles of Thistle Valley and Diamond Fork
In June 1866, the Uintah Utes joined the conflict. Black Hawk's brother, Mountain, and others led war parties. They attacked a militia group near Indianola. The militia was pinned down. More soldiers arrived and helped. The soldiers believed Chief Tabby had led the attack. They chased the Utes up Spanish Fork Canyon.
Mountain led his men to Spanish Fork. They killed William Berry, who had once beaten Black Hawk. They took cattle and horses and fled into the Wasatch Mountains. The militia chased them. They found the Utes at Diamond Fork River. The Utes were outnumbered and eventually withdrew. The militia found U.S. government items among the Utes' gear. This showed that the Utes had been getting supplies from the Uintah Reservation. Some believed U.S. Indian officials were helping the Utes fight the Mormons.
These events were a turning point. Mormons became more watchful. They built forts and moved small settlements. They combined livestock herds under guard. Many soldiers patrolled canyon trails. This made it harder for Utes to steal cattle and horses.
Black Hawk's Last Raid
In spring 1867, many militia from northern Utah came to central Utah. They patrolled routes used by Utes. Several attacks happened. Many ranches and settlements were closed. More settlers moved to towns with forts for protection. Black Hawk moved his forces south. He planned a raid on Parowan in Iron County.
On July 21, 1867, a large herd of 700 cattle and horses was the target. Other raiders took scattered livestock near Paragonah. Guards saw them and raised the alarm. The Utes were chased into a canyon. They had to leave their horses to escape. Black Hawk retreated. He knew it would be impossible to take stolen livestock over the high plateaus.
Black Hawk had not fully recovered from his wound at Gravelly Ford. He also had tuberculosis. His health was getting worse. Two weeks later, in August, Black Hawk and a small group went to the Uintah Reservation. He told the agent he was ready to talk peace with the whites.
Death of Isaac Potter
Isaac Potter was a complex figure. Some saw him as a good man. Others saw him as an outlaw leader who helped Native Americans. He was also a Ute Indian sub-chief during the Black Hawk War. In the early 1860s, many accusations were made against Ike. These included stealing cattle, horses, and food. He may have done this to help feed Native Americans. They were suffering greatly after their land was taken and they were confined to reservations.
On January 29, 1863, U.S. Army troops attacked a Shoshoni village. About 250 Shoshoni were killed. Later that spring, an attack on Utes in Spanish Fork Canyon was planned. Isaac Potter warned the Native Americans. This allowed most of their camps to move. Some Utes were still killed, but many more would have died without his warning. After this, Isaac Potter became a marked man among some white settlers. But among Native Americans, he gained trust.
Isaac Potter and Charles Wilson were arrested for stealing an ox. They were taken to Coalville for trial. On August 1, 1867, while under guard, armed people appeared. Potter and Wilson were killed outside Coalville.
Peace Negotiations
With Black Hawk willing to talk, the U.S. government finally stepped in. Superintendent Franklin Head went to the Uintah Agency. He wanted to work out a peace agreement. All the chiefs of the Northern Utes were already there. By mid-September, the government got what it wanted from Black Hawk. He promised to stop raiding. He also promised to convince others to stop harassing whites.
The spring of 1868 brought hope for Mormon settlers. They wanted to return to their homes. But the first group trying to resettle Sevier Valley was attacked. Resettlement was delayed. There were still some attacks and thefts. Black Hawk sent messages to other leaders. He encouraged them to negotiate with the government. His peaceful approach was a good example. Tamaritz and his group surrendered in August.
Negotiations continued all summer. Chiefs met with leaders in different towns. The fighting seemed to be ending. Mormon settlers and officials thought the war was over. However, some historians include later incidents. They extend the war's dates until 1872. That's when all Utes were forced to move to the Uintah Agency.
The Ghost Dance and Final End
By 1869, tensions eased. There were occasional raids. The Uintah Reservation was not peaceful. Utes from different groups were forced to live close together. Younger fighters wanted to raid.
In 1870, an early version of the Ghost Dance came to Utah. This belief taught that ancestors could be brought back. Thousands of Northern Utes, Shoshones, and Bannocks met for this vision. This gathering worried officials. They feared it might start a large Native American alliance to drive out whites. Ute chiefs said it was religious and not a threat. The event happened peacefully.
In 1871, a new governor came to Utah. He wanted to take control from Brigham Young. One of his first actions was to disband the Nauvoo Legion. This was Utah's militia. Musters and drills were forbidden. This left settlers without protection from thefts and threats. This set the stage for the final part of the war.
The Northern Utes agreed to host the Ghost Dance meeting near Fountain Green. By May, about 2,000 Utes gathered there. More Shoshones were coming. Rumors said thousands of other tribes were expected. All waited for a Paiute prophet. This large gathering worried Sanpete residents. They feared Utes would get revenge for past killings.
Residents complained to the governor. They said men had to be armed day and night. White traders sold ammunition. By June, some Utes declared war on the Mormons. They killed a herdboy. Stock raids began in Sanpete and Sevier Valleys. Residents asked for help from Fort Douglas. Utes were attacked in response.
Daniel Wells asked General Morrow for help. Morrow agreed. He called up 500 former Nauvoo Legion militiamen. They marched south to break up the Ghost Dance. A massacre was avoided. The Native American groups were sent away. The Utes were ordered back to the Uintah Reservation. Two more Mormons were killed that year. The Northern Ute resistance ended when federal troops kept Utes on the reservation. The Black Hawk War in Utah was over.
What Happened After the War
Utah's Black Hawk War had big effects for both Mormons and Utes. After 1872, Mormons in Utah could expand settlements. More immigrants came without the threat of Ute resistance. Chasing Ute raiders helped explore new areas for settlements. Ranchers could take land far from towns without fear. Mormons also started to accept the army's role.
Black Hawk's War was a disaster for the Northern Utes. They were forced permanently onto the Uintah Reservation. They became dependent on government agents. Promises made in treaties were not fully kept. Rules that limited the Utes were strictly enforced. But promises made to the Utes were largely ignored. This caused divisions within the tribes.
The Ute people were forced to give up their traditional way of life. They had to live in one of the least suitable parts of Utah. Disease, poor living conditions, and hopelessness greatly reduced Ute populations. In 1865, there were an estimated 23,000 Native Americans in Utah. By 1872, that number was estimated at 10,000. While these numbers might be high, they show the terrible impact on the Utes. Many died from disease, starvation, and the war. Others moved out of the territory. The Ute population continued to decline.
Images for kids
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Monument to remember first settlers killed by natives in Manti, Utah on Oct. 4, 1853.
