British Central Africa Protectorate facts for kids

Quick facts for kids British Central Africa Protectorate
1893–1907
Flag Coat of arms
Motto: Light in Darkness
Anthem: God Save the Queen/King
Map of southern Africa, 1897. The British Central Africa Protectorate is shaded dark pink.
Status	Protectorate of British Empire
Capital	Zomba
Common languages	English (official) Chewa, Yao, Tumbuka
Religion	Christianity, Islam, Bantu mythology, Tumbuka religion
Government	Constitutional monarchy
Monarch
• 1893-1901	Victoria
• 1901-1907	Edward VII
Commissioner
• 1893-1896 (first)	Harry Johnston
• 1907 (last)	Francis Barrow Pearce
History
• Established	1893
• Changed to Nyasaland Protectorate	6 July 1907
Area
1904	109,342 km2 (42,217 sq mi)
Currency	Rhodesian pound
Preceded by Succeeded by Maravi Nyasaland Districts Protectorate Nyasaland

The British Central Africa Protectorate (BCA) was a British controlled area in Africa. It was officially announced in 1889 and confirmed in 1891. This protectorate covered the same land as today's Malawi. In 1907, its name was changed to Nyasaland. Britain became interested in this region after David Livingstone explored the Zambezi area starting in 1858. His visits led to missionaries arriving in the 1860s. These missionaries were from groups like the Universities' Mission to Central Africa and the Church of Scotland. A few settlers followed them. Portugal tried to claim much of this land, but Britain disagreed. To stop Portugal from taking over, Britain declared the area a protectorate. This was first done for the southern part, then for the whole region in 1889. After talks with Portugal and Germany about the borders, the British government officially approved the protectorate in May 1891.

How the Protectorate Started

The Shire Highlands and lands west of Lake Malawi were explored by David Livingstone between 1858 and 1864. He thought the area's good climate and fertile land would be perfect for spreading Christianity and trade. Because of Livingstone's reports, several missions were set up there in the 1860s and 1870s.

In 1878, the African Lakes Company was started in Glasgow. This company aimed to trade and transport goods. They worked with the missions to stop the slave trade by bringing in fair trade. They also wanted to make money and increase European influence. A mission and small trading post were built at Blantyre in 1876. A British representative, called a consul, moved there in 1883.

Portuguese landowners were active in the lower Shire River valley from the 1830s. The Portuguese government claimed control over much of Central Africa. However, they only truly controlled a small part of it. In 1879, Portugal officially claimed the area south and east of the Ruo River. By 1882, they had taken over the lower Shire River valley up to the Ruo River. Portugal then tried to get Britain to agree to their land claims. But the Berlin Conference (1884) stopped these talks.

In 1888, the British Foreign Office did not want to protect the small British settlements in the Shire Highlands. This was despite claims by the African Lakes Company that Portugal was interfering with their trade. However, the Foreign Office also refused to discuss Portugal's claim that the Shire Highlands should be part of Portuguese East Africa. Britain did not believe Portugal truly controlled that area.

To prevent Portugal from taking over, Britain sent Henry Hamilton Johnston as a consul. His job was to report on Portuguese rule in the Zambezi and Shire valleys. He was also to make agreements with local rulers outside Portuguese control. These agreements were just friendships and did not create a British protectorate. But they stopped rulers from accepting protection from other countries.

In early 1889, Johnston spent six weeks in Lisbon. He tried to agree on areas of influence for Britain and Portugal in Central Africa. The plan would have given Britain all the land west of Lake Nyasa and Mashonaland. But it would not include the Shire Highlands. This plan was later rejected by the Foreign Office.

In 1888, Portugal told its people in Portuguese East Africa to make agreements with the Yao chiefs. These chiefs lived southeast of Lake Malawi and in the Shire Highlands. An expedition led by Antonio Cardoso left in November 1888 for the lake. Later, in early 1889, a second expedition led by Alexandre de Serpa Pinto moved up the Shire valley. Together, these two groups made over twenty agreements with chiefs in what is now Malawi.

Serpa Pinto met Johnston in August 1889 east of the Ruo River. Johnston told him not to cross the river into the Shire Highlands. Serpa Pinto had been careful, but in September, he crossed the Ruo to Chiromo. This happened after small fights between his forces and the Kololo. The Kololo were people left behind by Livingstone in 1864.

In response to Serpa Pinto's move, Johnston's assistant, John Buchanan, declared a Shire Highlands Protectorate. He did this while Johnston was away and against the Foreign Office's orders. It seems Buchanan acted to stop Serpa Pinto from advancing further. In October 1889, Serpa Pinto's soldiers attacked a Kololo chief. They killed about 70 of his followers. With two armed river boats, they moved up the Shire River into the area Buchanan had declared a protectorate. Serpa Pinto left in November 1889 due to illness. His second-in-command, João Coutinho, pushed on to Katunga. This was the closest river port to Blantyre. Some Kololo chiefs fled to Blantyre for safety.

Johnston also declared another protectorate, the Nyasaland Districts Protectorate, west of Lake Malawi. This was also against Foreign Office orders. However, the Foreign Office approved it in May 1891. This was because a new channel, the Chinde channel, was found in the Zambezi delta. This channel was deep enough for ocean ships to enter the Zambezi. This meant ships did not have to go through Portuguese territory. Also, Cecil Rhodes's British South Africa Company offered to pay for the protectorate's management. This helped convince the British government.

This led to a crisis between Britain and Portugal. Britain refused to let an independent group decide the issue. Then, on January 11, 1890, Britain issued an ultimatum. This demanded that Portugal give up all claims to lands beyond the Ruo River and west of Lake Malawi. Portugal had to accept and ordered its troops in the Shire valley to move back. By March 12, 1890, all Portuguese forces had left Katunga and Chiromo.

An agreement in 1891 set the southern borders of what was now the British Central Africa Protectorate. The Ruo River had been the temporary border since 1879. But in the 1891 treaty, Britain gained an area west of the Shire and south of its meeting point with the Ruo. This area is now the Nsanje District. The treaty also gave Britain a 99-year lease on Chinde. This was a port at one of the Zambezi delta mouths. Here, ocean ships could transfer goods to river boats. The northern border of the protectorate was set at the Songwe River in 1890. This was part of an agreement with Germany. Its western border with Northern Rhodesia was set in 1891. This was agreed with the British South Africa Company.

Taking Control

In 1891, Johnston only controlled a small part of the Shire Highlands. This was a tiny piece of the whole protectorate. He started with only 70 Indian soldiers to enforce British rule. These troops, later joined by Indian and African recruits, fought small wars until 1895. They fought against groups who did not want to give up their independence. After 1895, troops helped the local police stop the slave trade until 1898.

The three main groups who resisted British rule were:

• Yao chiefs in the south, who were involved in the slave trade.
• Swahili groups around Lake Nyasa, also involved in the slave trade.
• Ngoni people, who had formed two powerful kingdoms in the west and north.

The Yao chiefdoms were closest to the European settlements. In August 1891, Johnston used his small force against three minor chiefs. Then he attacked the most important Yao chief. After some success, Johnston's forces were ambushed and had to retreat. In 1892, they did not fight the Yao chiefs who rejected British control. However, in 1893, Cecil Rhodes gave money for Johnston to hire 200 more Indian troops and African fighters. By the end of 1895, the only Yao resistance came from small groups that could cross into Mozambique when challenged.

Next, Johnston prepared to attack Mlozi bin Kazbadema. He was the leader of the "north end Arabs." Most people called "Arabs" by Europeans were actually Muslim Swahili or Nyamwezi people. Mlozi had defeated two attempts by the African Lakes Corporation to remove him and end the slave trade. Johnston had made a truce with Mlozi in October 1889 and left him alone until late 1895. Mlozi often broke the truce.

Johnston first made sure the Swahili ruler of Nkhotakota would not fight him. He paid the ruler money. In November 1895, Johnston took over 400 Sikh and African soldiers with cannons and machine guns. They went on steamers from Fort Johnston to Karonga. Without warning, Johnston attacked two of Mlozi's smaller forts on December 2. On the same day, he surrounded Mlozi's large, fortified town. They bombed it for two days and attacked it on December 4. Mlozi was captured, given a quick trial, and hanged on December 5. Between 200 and 300 of his fighters were killed. Many non-fighters were also killed. The other Swahili forts did not resist and were destroyed after they surrendered.

The Maseko Ngoni kingdom in the west was very powerful in the 1880s. But it became weaker due to internal fights. At first, Gomani, who won a civil war in 1891, got along well with British officials. But he worried about his young men leaving to work on European farms. He also worried about Johnston's strong actions against Yao resistance. In November 1895, Gomani told his people not to pay taxes to the British or work for them. He was also accused of bothering nearby missions. Johnston's assistant, Alfred Sharpe, attacked and defeated Gomani's forces on October 23, 1896. Gomani was sentenced to death by a military court and shot on October 27. Within a year, 5,000 of his former subjects were working in the Blantyre area.

The northern Ngoni kingdom did not threaten European trade. It was far from European farms. Also, the Scottish mission at Livingstonia had influence there. So, Johnston did not use force against it. It accepted British rule in 1904. It was allowed to keep its own traditions. Its king was recognized as a main chief and received a government salary. Gomani's son only received similar recognition much later.

How the Protectorate Was Run

The British South Africa Company offered to pay for the new protectorate's administration. This was part of Cecil Rhodes's plan to control all British land north of the Zambezi. But Scottish missionaries especially resisted this. In February 1891, a compromise was reached. What later became Northern Rhodesia would be run by the company. What later became Nyasaland would be run by the Foreign Office. However, Henry Hamilton Johnston would be in charge of both areas. He would receive £10,000 a year from Rhodes to help pay for running both territories. This arrangement ended in 1900.

Harry Johnston was the main leader from February 1, 1891, to April 16, 1896. Alfred Sharpe, who had been Johnston's assistant, took over in 1896. He served until April 1, 1910. The first British consul used Blantyre as his base. But the second moved to Zomba because it was closer to the slave route. Johnston also liked Zomba because it was isolated, healthy, and beautiful. Zomba became the main government center throughout the colonial period. Blantyre remained the business center.

In 1896, Johnston set up a small government office in Zomba. This office, with a few technical advisors, became the core of his administration. In 1892, Johnston gained the power to set up courts and divide the protectorate into districts. Until 1904, he chose district officials called Collectors of Revenue. Their main jobs were to collect taxes, ensure workers for European farms, and carry out government orders. Johnston chose people with experience in Africa for these roles. By 1905, there were 12 Collectors and 26 Assistant Collectors.

The power of existing chiefs was reduced. The British preferred direct rule by their own officials. The Northern Ngoni Kingdom was an exception. It kept a good amount of independence. However, the few British officers still needed the help of local chiefs to manage their districts. So, chiefs often continued their traditional roles.

One big problem for Johnston was land claims. For up to 25 years before the protectorate, Europeans claimed to have bought large areas of land from local chiefs. They usually paid very little. Johnston had to check if these land deals were fair. He believed the land belonged to the tribes and that chiefs did not have the right to sell it. But he used the idea that the people had quietly agreed that their chief could sell the land. So, Johnston accepted claims where the chief of the tribe signed the contract. This was allowed if the contract did not go against British rule. If claims were accepted, Johnston gave out "Certificates of Claim." These were like grants of full ownership. Out of 61 claims, only two were completely rejected. A few others were made smaller. These certificates were given out before professional judges were appointed. Later, judges and administrators criticized Johnston's work.

In total, 59 Certificates of Claim were registered, mostly between 1892 and 1894. These covered about 1.5 million hectares (3.7 million acres). This was 15% of the protectorate's total land. This included a large area in the North Nyasa District that the British South Africa Company bought for its minerals. This land was never turned into large farms. Much of the other land, about 350,000 hectares (867,000 acres), was the best farming land in the Shire Highlands. This was the most populated part of the country.

In the early years, very little of the land bought by Europeans was farmed. Settlers wanted workers. They encouraged Africans already living there to stay. New workers, often from Mozambique, also moved onto the land. They grew their own crops. From the late 1890s, when farms started growing coffee, owners began charging rent to these tenants. This rent was usually two months of work a year. One month of work would cover the worker's tax. But some owners demanded longer work periods.

To raise money and get more workers, a Hut tax was started in 1895 in the Shire Highlands. This tax slowly spread to the rest of the protectorate. It became common everywhere by 1906. It was usually three shillings a year. But people could pay it by working one month a year on a settler farm or for the government.

The protectorate's name was changed to the Nyasaland Protectorate on July 6, 1907.

Population and Society

There was only one official count of people during this time, in 1901. It reported a population of 736,724. However, the number of African people was guessed using hut tax records. They multiplied the number of huts by the average number of people per hut. In some northern areas, no taxes were collected in 1901. So, their populations were estimated from occasional official visits.

It is thought that many parts of the country had a good number of people in the mid-1800s. But by the 1880s, large areas had fewer people. This was due to destructive raids by the Ngoni people and the famines they caused. It was also due to slave raiding. Some areas in the Shire Highlands might have become almost empty of people.

Some of the missing population might have been replaced by families called "Anguru." These were Lomwe-speaking people who moved from parts of Mozambique. They became tenants on the farms in the Shire Highlands. They started arriving from 1899. The 1921 count showed 108,204 "Anguru." The counts in 1901 and 1911 did not record tribal groups. But the large population increases in areas next to Mozambique, like Blantyre and Zomba, suggest many people moved in. In this period, few Africans left the protectorate to work elsewhere. But leaving for work became more common later.

British rule did not greatly change African society until First World War. Most people continued to live under the same social and political systems as before 1891. The British did not try to remove or limit the powers of the Yao, Ngoni, or Makololo chiefs. These chiefs had arrived in the area in the 1800s. They ruled over the original inhabitants they had moved, conquered, or joined. However, the Swahili slave traders were killed in the wars of the 1890s or left.

One area where early efforts to change things failed was domestic slavery. Slave trading was stopped. Johnston ordered that domestic slaves should be freed. But this type of slavery continued, especially in the Central Region, well into the early 1900s.

Economy and Transport

During the protectorate, most people were farmers. They grew maize, millet, and other food crops for themselves. The protectorate had no valuable minerals. So, its economy had to be based on farming. But before 1907, this had barely begun.

Before colonial times, trade was small. It involved exporting ivory and forest products like natural rubber. In return, they got cloth and metals. For the first few years of the protectorate, ivory and rubber were the main exports. The first major farm crop was coffee. It was grown in large amounts from around 1895. But competition from Brazil, which flooded world markets by 1905, and dry weather led to its decline. Farmers then turned to tobacco and cotton. Both these crops had been grown in small amounts before. Tea was also first grown for sale in 1905 in the Shire Highlands. But tobacco and tea farming really grew after the Shire Highlands Railway opened in 1908.

Before the railway, water was the best way to transport goods. Small steamers used the Zambezi-Lower Shire river system. They were later used on the Upper Shire and Lake Malawi. The Upper and Lower Shire rivers were separated by about 96 kilometers (60 miles) of rapids. Both the Upper and Lower Shire were often too shallow for larger boats, especially in the dry season. Also, the main economic areas were in the Shire Highlands, near Blantyre. This was 40 kilometers (25 miles) from Chikwawa, a small Shire River port. Goods were carried to river ports by people, which was slow and expensive. The Shire valley was not good for animals that pull carts.

Small steamers had to go through marshes and shallow waters to reach the port of Chinde in Mozambique. Low water levels in Lake Nyasa reduced the Shire River's flow from 1896 to 1934. So, the main river port moved. First, it moved to Chiromo, further from the main settlements. From 1908, it moved to Port Herald (now Nsanje).

As early as 1895, Johnston suggested a railway line from Blantyre to Quelimane in Mozambique. But most of this route was in Portuguese territory. Also, Quelimane was only suitable for small ships. In 1895, Eugene Sharrer suggested building a railway from Blantyre to Chiromo. He formed the Shire Highlands Railway Company in December 1895. Johnston asked the Foreign Office to pay for this railway, but they refused. In 1901, they agreed in principle to the company building the railway. They gave the company about 146,000 hectares (361,600 acres) of land next to the railway route. Because of delays in getting money and arguments over the route, construction did not start until early 1903. The line from Blantyre to Chiromo opened in 1907.

Modern communication began in 1891. The first post office opened at Chiromo. This remained the main sorting office until the railway opened. Then Limbe became the postal center. A telegraph connection from Blantyre to Cape Town was set up in April 1898.

Images for kids

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  Evolution of the British Central Africa Protectorate

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  Stamp displaying the BCA coat of arms