Pacatnamu facts for kids

The Pacatnamu site is an ancient place located near the mouth of the Jequetepeque Valley on the northern coast of Peru. It's protected by rocky cliffs on two sides and a human-made wall on the third. This area of Peru isn't tropical; it gets very little rain but can sometimes be quite humid.

Exploring Pacatnamu

The landscape around Pacatnamu.

People first mentioned the Pacatnamu site in the late 1800s. However, detailed studies didn't begin until 1925. An explorer named Kroeber drew some maps of the main buildings, but only for a small part of the site.

The first real digs started in 1937–1939 with a German archaeologist named Ubbelohde-Doering. He dug more in 1952–1953 and again in 1962–1963. His work helped uncover many pyramid complexes.

Wolfgang and Giesela Hecker joined Ubbelohde-Doering in 1962–1963. They created a general map of the entire site and detailed maps of its buildings. In 1974, Richard Keatinge surveyed the surface and wrote short reports about his discoveries.

In 1983, the Museum of Cultural History at the University of California, Los Angeles received permission to dig at Pacatnamu for five years. This project was very successful! They found hundreds of artifacts and created a timeline of when people lived at the site.

Pacatnamu's Timeline

Pacatnamu was home to people during two main periods. The first period was when the Moche people lived there, using their special pottery. The second period saw the Chimu people, who had their own style of pottery.

We can tell the timeline of these groups by looking at the bricks they used for building. Pacatnamu was empty for a while before the end of the Moche IV period or the start of Moche V (around 600 AD). During the Moche period, they built important ceremonial buildings.

The pottery from this time shows some influence from the Huari people. However, the fabrics and burial styles were clearly Moche. Around 900 AD, a new type of pottery appeared, marking the end of the Moche period.

There was a break between the Moche and Chimu periods around 1050 AD. This time also saw big floods and major changes in all the artifacts found.

Around 1100–1150 AD, a large new group of people lived in Pacatnamu. They brought new styles of pottery, textiles, bricks, and building designs. This is known as the Chimu period. During this time, they built large walls, probably for defense. An unfinished wall to the north suggests they were planning to expand.

We don't know exactly why the Chimu period ended, but it was around 1370 AD. It's possible some people stayed after 1370. However, by the time the Inca conquered the North Coast, Pacatnamu was mostly in ruins.

Daily Life and Trade

Farming and Food

The site shows two main periods of people living there. The Moche people came first, followed by the Chimu. We can see how long each group stayed by looking at their building bricks. Pacatnamu was empty for a while before the Moche V period, around 600 AD.

During the Moche period, they built special ceremonial buildings. Their pottery shows some influence from the Huari culture. But their textiles and burials were clearly Moche. Around 900 AD, a new type of pottery appeared, signaling the end of the Moche time.

Around 1050 AD, there was a break before the Chimu people arrived. This time also had big floods and changes in all the things they left behind. Around 1100–1150 AD, a new large group lived in Pacatnamu. They brought new styles of pottery, fabrics, and building methods. This was the Chimu period.

They built large walls, likely for defense. An unfinished wall suggests they were expanding. The Chimu period ended around 1370 AD. Some people might have stayed after that. But by the time the Inca conquered the North Coast, Pacatnamu was mostly ruins.

Animals Used by People

Llamas were very important animals at Pacatnamu. They were used for daily life and for special ceremonies. Their bones are found in many burials. The black vulture was also important in religious life. Its bones are often found in large burials linked to ritual killings.

Trading Goods

Pacatnamu was once a place where people went on pilgrimages, like a religious journey. We find items from all over the nearby valley and from different cultures. However, there isn't much proof of regular trade. Instead, there are many religious buildings that were used for a long time. This suggests it was more of a spiritual center than a trading hub.

Things like pottery, textiles, and some copper items were found in burials or religious places.

Special Skills

Many buildings show that people had special skills, especially in making bricks. Textiles (woven fabrics) were also very important. People showed great skill in weaving, using many different patterns and symbols. Textiles are found in almost every burial site.

Many buildings also show signs that textiles were made there. Pacatnamu has the largest number of Moche textiles found so far. There is also proof of people specializing in making beads and copper items. Rich families controlled the textile business.

Fishermen were often part-time specialists. Their homes were usually outside the city walls. Their trash piles show they ate both seafood and wild plants. This suggests they spent time fishing and farming to feed the higher classes, but also to feed themselves.

Buildings and Architecture

Scholars don't fully agree on the main building style at Pacatnamu. The Moche and Chimu people are most often linked to the site. Recently, the Lambayeque group has also been connected to Pacatnamu.

Most archaeologists studying Pacatnamu focus on its large wall system and the many huacas. Huacas are like flat-topped pyramids with structures on top. The largest huaca is Huaca 1, in the center of the site.

Many buildings at the site have different right and left entrances. This right-left difference is common in many Chimu sites. At Pacatnamu, the right-hand entrances are more fancy and easy to get to. The left entrances are usually blocked with debris and lead to everyday buildings where food was prepared.

This suggests the right side was used for ceremonies or important administrative tasks. The buildings focus more on how they look and how people move through them, rather than just their purpose. This also makes scholars believe it was a religious center, not a normal living area.

• Huaca 1

This building is 70 by 70 meters and 10 meters tall. Around it are courtyards, a two-level mound called the East Pyramid, and a large area with complex buildings known as the Major Quadrangle. Both Huaca 1 and the Quadrangle are from the early Chimu period.

• Major Quadrangle

Its walls were originally 5 meters tall. There are three main hallways leading from this section. The right hall is more complex and organized, with little debris. The left entrance is smaller and simpler. Scholars think this shows Pacatnamu was a pilgrimage site. The right side was for ceremonies or important tasks, and the left was for daily use or food preparation. Most of this structure is from the early Chimu period, but it also shows building from the later Chimu period.

• Complex A

This complex is found by leaving the West Corridor from the Major Quadrangle. It's known for its "audiencia" and a fabric piece showing a ceremony.

• Audiencia

This area has three disturbed burial chambers. It also has an amazing collection of tiny pottery and 93 miniature textiles, including small ponchos, loincloths, and a crown.

• Complex E

This complex is found by following the central path towards the site's entrance gate. Archaeologists found layers of plaster, suggesting it was a storage place for ceremonial wooden items. This adds more proof that Pacatnamu was mainly a religious center.

• Funerary Mound (H1M1?)

Located in the southwest corner of the Major Quadrangle. It was built using a special construction method and is about 30 meters wide and 2.5 meters tall.

• Huaca 31 & Related Buildings

These buildings were constructed throughout the site's history. They feature Classic Moche Bricks (flat rectangular). The North Wall was built with bricks from the later Chimu period (flat-bottomed oval shape).

Leaders and Social Differences

It's hard to know exactly how leadership worked at Pacatnamu. Many archaeologists believe it was mainly a ceremonial or pilgrimage site. However, some research suggests that the elite (important people) of Pacatnamu were administrative and ritual specialists. This means they had power in government and religious matters, and didn't have to work to produce food.

Some buildings show that high-ranking people from the larger Chimu or Moche cultures would come here for ceremonies. There were special places for them. But we don't have any names or documents about direct leaders of Pacatnamu itself.

In general, the buildings at the site show differences in wealth and power. More powerful people had grander, monumental buildings. Common people had simpler, plain buildings.

There are no records showing that Pacatnamu had its own central government. So, many archaeologists think Pacatnamu was part of a larger civilization. Later periods show people building defensive walls. While defense was a main reason, the walls had many uses. Building them would have needed many workers. This suggests a lord or king ordered them built, sending common people to do the work.

The many walls suggest a real need for defense, or that whoever controlled the site felt threatened. Either way, there would have been an army to help defend the city if it were attacked. While there's no proof of an army or a battle at Pacatnamu, the walls suggest a powerful person ordered them. This also implies there was an army to protect those walls.

The architecture shows that many large courtyards have a right-left layout. At Pacatnamu, the grander buildings with more ceremonial items are found down hallways to the right. The left side hallways lead to simpler areas used for storage or food preparation.

Huaca 1, the main pyramid, is surrounded by high walls that completely block its view. People think these walls kept out those not allowed to know about or join the ceremonies. This created a social order, showing who could participate and who could not. The different items found at the site also show that higher-ranking people had more special and unique things. They also had more complex buildings, while commoners had simpler structures and less fancy beads and textiles.

Many burials at Pacatnamu have grave goods like textiles, pottery, sacrifices, and copper. There isn't a huge difference in what's found in most burials. However, some people were buried closer to ceremonial buildings like Huaca 1. Some were even buried inside the pyramid itself, which set them apart. All burials at Pacatnamu have textiles, which were very important. They also have pottery and copper. Llama sacrifices were important for ceremonies and are rarely found in burials, but there is proof of them.

The textiles found vary in how well they are preserved and their quality. The most impressive textiles are linked to people with higher status. But nothing else in the burials tells us the person's exact identity.

Many burials at Pacatnamu have been robbed, so many skeletons are damaged. Often, only the person's age can be determined, not their sex. Near the entrance of Huaca 1, a mass burial of young men was found. There are three separate burials, one on top of the other, each done at a different time. All 14 bodies are of men around 14 years old. It's hard to know why they died this way, but it might have been part of a ceremony. It's clear these individuals were not chosen randomly.

Beliefs and Rituals

"Pacatnamu offers a 'laboratory' to study the art, buildings, and people of a major religious center shaped by local growth and outside rule." - Christopher B. Donnan

For a long time, archaeologists thought Pacatnamu was a major ceremonial and pilgrimage center for the entire Jequetepeque valley. However, new evidence suggests it was likely only used for ceremonies and for political and administrative purposes. This is because there isn't much pottery from the wider Jequetepeque valley. Also, the burials suggest only local residents, not a larger population of pilgrims.

There are no written records from Pacatnamu, even after the Spanish arrived. By the time the Incas controlled much of Peru, the site was already in ruins. Much of its specific history remains a mystery.

Overall, the buildings from the Moche period suggest it was a ceremonial or administrative center. The monumental architecture shows it was a place for many rituals and ceremonies. The only clear proof of rituals are the offering room and a ritual burial near one of the defensive walls.

The offering room puzzled archaeologists when found in 1984. It was in the Huaca 1 complex. Two other rooms were connected to it, but they were empty except for room 3, the actual ritual site. This room was full of artifacts, including pottery, bones (human and camelid), metal, textiles, shells, and organic remains. The whole room showed signs of being burned after all the items were stored inside. Before this discovery, archaeologists had never seen this ritual. But in 1995, a similar room with almost the same items was found at the site of Dos Cabezas.

There was a tradition in ancient Peru of burning offerings to give them to the gods instead of keeping them on earth. The Incas often burned textiles every morning to start the day, believing it made the gods happy.

At Pacatnamu, there isn't enough evidence to name or identify high-ranking people like kings or priests. However, a few graves north of Huaca 31 show signs of high-status individuals. We don't have any information about specific gods the people of Pacatnamu believed in.

Death and Burials

How Bodies Were Prepared

The burials at Pacatnamu don't show many differences between males and females. However, there are slight differences in children's burials. We don't have enough evidence to know if the people of Pacatnamu followed traditional ancient Peruvian burial methods. The Spanish noted that when a village member died, they were mourned for five days, then washed and prepared for burial. The bodies at Pacatnamu are well-preserved, but we don't have proof of this washing practice there.

Women and girls usually had their hair braided. Most people are found with their hands and feet wrapped in yarn. Their faces are often, but not always, covered in cloth. Clothing is usually present, but it doesn't always preserve well. So, we can't tell if only some people were buried with clothes or all of them. Textiles are always found in Pacatnamu burials.

Donnan and Cock mentioned that the only elite class burial is north of Huaca 31. All other graves seem to be those of common people. Elite people were buried around Huaca 31 during the Late Intermediate Period. During the same time, many common burials were found elsewhere at the site. There were more commoners buried than elites.

There are five different ways a body could be wrapped or placed:

• Shroud Wrap (wrapped in cloth)
• Splint Reinforced (supported with splints)
• Cane Frame (placed within a cane frame)
• Cane Tube (placed inside a cane tube)
• Cane Coffin (placed in a cane coffin)

Items Buried with People

Pottery

Pottery was found in both adult male and female burials. Ceramics are a very common item found throughout the site and in graves.

Gourds

Gourds were used to hold organic items like corncobs and other farm crops. Even though the people of Pacatnamu ate seafood, their burial goods often included crops like corn and quinoa. Gourds are more common than pottery in burials.

Plants

Plants left out in the open are rarely found. Most plant information archaeologists have comes from inside gourds.

Animals

Animal bones are found in most adult male and female burials, but usually only parts of the animal. There is only one burial with a complete llama skeleton. Other animals found include fish, Guinea pigs, and birds.

Metal

Copper is found in all burials, regardless of size or sex.

Decorations

• Ear Ornaments

These are only found in adult female burials.

• Beads

Found in almost all burials, across all ages and sexes.

• Feathered Headdress

Only one was found at Pacatnamu. In other Moche sites, feathered headdresses are usually linked to high-ranking priests. However, in this case, archaeologists think it's not for a priest. It's made of bone and is of lesser quality than copper ones. So, it was probably a common person's attempt to make this type of item.

• Textiles

These are the most common burial items. They are found in all graves, but men usually have more than women.

• Spindle Whorls

Only found in graves of adult women. These are tools used for spinning yarn.

• Net Spacers

Only found in graves of adult men. These are important for fishing practices.

Health and Injuries

Joint Problems (Osteoarthritis)

This condition is mostly found in older people, affecting their hips, knees, shoulders, and elbows. It's usually linked to the normal stresses of daily life on the body. When found in shoulders and elbows, it suggests a lot of upper body work. When found in the back, knees, and hips, it suggests a lot of lifting and kneeling.

Rheumatoid Arthritis

This type of arthritis is harder to spot than normal arthritis. But archaeologists are confident they found some skeletal evidence of it.

Tooth Problems

Most common people often had tooth loss and disease. This caused the most daily pain for the people of Pacatnamu. This is usually linked to their diet, which was nutritious but very damaging to their teeth.

Injuries

Fractures (broken bones) and dislocations were very rare at Pacatnamu. However, archaeologists found two examples of old, healed fractures. They also found one case of multiple unhealed fractures and one case of a severe spinal injury. This was a skeleton of a middle-aged woman whose spine broke at a 90-degree angle. They stabilized the fracture, and she lived at that angle for the rest of her life. Her knees showed some stress, and archaeologists believe she continued to move and function after the injury. There was also one case of a serious injury to an adult male's left eye. It's likely he lost the use of this eye due to the injury or infection.

Archaeologists found two cases of tumors. Both were likely harmless and made of cartilage. The first was found in a young male's femur (thigh bone). The second was in a male's left thumb, growing in the bone shaft. This is called a Chondroma.

Birth Defects

• The head of the left radius bone (a forearm bone) in an adult female: The joint surface of the bone was rounded instead of curved inward. The bones around it were also shaped differently to make room for this defect.
• The right humerus (upper arm bone) of an adult male was much shorter than his left. His head was also very misshapen. The left side of his face around the back of the skull was much larger than the right side.
• A female spine defect known as a "butterfly" vertebrate.

Warfare and Conflict

In later periods, the Chimu people built a large wall system. However, some argue that the main purpose of these walls was not just for protection, because they had many doors. It is clear, though, that the Chimu were expanding Pacatnamu.

There is no direct proof of warfare. But the mass burial of young men might suggest a small battle, or it could have been for purely religious reasons.

Pacatnamu has no written documents to create a historical timeline. Even when the Spanish arrived, they never mentioned Pacatnamu. This is likely because the site was already in ruins and abandoned by then.

Art and Symbols

There was no writing system used in Pacatnamu. So, we have no documents or written records to study. However, textiles (woven fabrics) were extremely important to the cultures of Peru and South America. Many of these textiles show important rituals and ceremonies. So, they can almost be seen as a written document in a more artistic form.

Important Symbols

Animals were very important to the culture in Pacatnamu. The black vulture and llamas appear often in textiles. They clearly had a big impact on daily life, providing labor and food. But they also held important religious meanings.

Usually, in textiles showing a religious ceremony, one person looks more important. This person was probably in charge of the ceremony. But there is no information about who this person actually was.

Hyer describes the many different types of weaving patterns used for textiles. Some patterns meant a finer piece of material. One tomb from the Moche IV period held the remains of an adult female, possibly a priestess. She was placed in a cane sarcophagus, or a cane coffin. Buried with her were several young camelids (like llamas) placed around the heads and feet of other young camelids, along with other offerings. Many burial sites have camelid bones as offerings. This shows that llamas were a very important part of Moche society's rituals.

Here are some weaving types:

• Plain weave
• Tapestry weave
• Alternating float weave
• Gauze
• Openwork
• Twill
• Complementary weft
• Supplementary warp and weft

Wool yarn was most used for weaving and usually made the finest material. For textiles found in graves, they were usually made of cotton and wool. They used techniques like weft, supplementary weft float patterning, and plain weave. These patterns are also found along the coastal regions of Peru.

The End of Pacatnamu

The main period when people lived at Pacatnamu usually ended around 1370 AD. Donnan and Cock believe a small group of people probably continued to live there, but not many. Most of the population likely left because the Chimu conquered the lower Jequetepeque Valley. The Chimu capital was at Chan Chan.

Even though a small group might have stayed in Pacatnamu during this time, the site was empty by the time the Inca conquered the northern coast (around 1470 AD).

There's no clear reason why people finally left for good. However, the site still held meaning for outsiders. There's some proof that people returned for small ceremonies. But these were probably just a few families, and it was no longer a major pilgrimage center. Offerings still appear during the early colonial period. But after this time, the site lost its importance, as no colonial documents mention its location or significance.

See also

In Spanish: Pakatnamú para niños