Robert Crowley (printer) facts for kids

Robert Crowley (born around 1517 – died June 18, 1588) was an important English figure during a time of big changes in religion. He was a printer, a poet, and a Protestant church leader. He was known for speaking out about his beliefs.

Crowley was a strong supporter of the Protestant movement, even more so than King Henry VIII or the Church of England at the time. Under King Edward VI, he joined other Protestant printers in London. They wanted to see more reforms in the church and in society.

He believed England should be a Christian country that helped everyone, especially the poor. Crowley often criticized what he saw as corruption among church leaders and the wealthy. He thought they were too focused on themselves.

Crowley also played a key role in printing important books. He helped create the first printed versions of Piers Plowman, a famous old English poem. He also helped with the first translation of the Gospels into Welsh. And he was involved in the first complete English metrical psalter, which was a book of Psalms set to music.

Later, Crowley felt that the changes made during Edward VI's reign weren't enough. He thought that closing down monasteries, for example, just replaced one kind of problem with another. After Queen Mary I came to power and then Queen Elizabeth I, Crowley continued to speak out. He became a leader in a debate about what church leaders should wear, which was called the vestments controversy. This eventually led to him losing his church jobs.

Towards the end of his life, Crowley got some of his church positions back. He seemed to take a more moderate path, defending the Church of England from both Roman Catholicism and other Protestant groups who wanted a different church structure.

Robert Crowley's Early Life

Robert Crowley was born around 1517. He was likely born in Gloucestershire, possibly in a town called Tetbury. Some records suggest he was from Northamptonshire.

He started studying at the University of Oxford around 1534. By 1539, he was a student at Magdalen College. Around this time, Crowley became a strong Protestant. His beliefs were more in line with the reformers in Europe. This was quite different from the official Church of England under King Henry VIII.

Magdalen College was a place where many students shared these new Protestant ideas. Many of them later became important church leaders. Crowley earned his first degree in 1540 and became a Fellow of Magdalen College in 1542. However, he left the college that same year.

Crowley might have left because of a crackdown on Protestants. Or, like his friend John Foxe, he might have disagreed with the rule that church leaders had to remain unmarried. Crowley later got married, which shows he didn't agree with the rule about celibacy for clergy.

From 1542 to about 1546, Crowley worked as a tutor. He taught for Sir Nicholas Poyntz, a Protestant noble family in Gloucestershire. This was a common way for young, educated Protestants to find support. They would wait for better political times to push for changes in the church.

Publishing Career in London

Things changed a lot when King Henry VIII died. His young son, Edward VI, became king. Edward and his uncle, Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset, who was in charge, supported the Protestant reforms. This was a hopeful time for people like Crowley.

Crowley moved to London by late 1546. He may have worked as a proof-reader for Protestant printers like John Day and William Seres. Day and Seres worked together for a few years.

In 1549, Crowley became a member of the Stationers' Company, a group for printers and booksellers. Between 1549 and 1551, he wrote or helped produce many books.

Some of his early works included A Supplication of the Poor Commons (around 1546). This book talked about social and religious problems. It argued that fixing these issues meant both religious and economic changes. Another early work was about the true meaning of the Lord's Supper.

In 1548, Crowley published his own books. These included responses to people who disagreed with Protestant ideas. He also wrote An information and peticion. This book spoke to Parliament on behalf of poor common people. It criticized wealthy landlords for unfair practices like raising rents and taking over common lands. Crowley warned that if the rich didn't change, God would punish England. He looked to the king to make things right.

In 1549, Crowley's The Psalter of Dauid newly translated into English metre was published. This was a very important book of Psalms set to music.

Crowley also published many other works that criticized society. Many of these were poems. Some of his well-known works from this time include:

• A new years gyfte (1549)
• The voyce of the laste trumpet (1549)
• One and thyrtye epigrammes (1550)
• The way to wealth (1550)

In 1550, Crowley published three editions of Piers Plowman. He also printed a version of a text by John Purvey, which he thought was by John Wycliffe. Crowley also printed books by the Welsh scholar William Salesbury about the Welsh language. These books also included arguments against the Roman Catholic Church. In 1551, Crowley printed a Welsh translation of parts of the 1549 Book of Common Prayer.

That same year, Crowley printed two of his own long poems: Philargyrie of Greate Britayne and Pleasure and payne, heauen and hell.

Was Crowley a Printer?

There's some debate among experts about whether Robert Crowley actually owned and ran his own printing press. Some believe he was mainly a bookseller. They point out that some of the decorative letters and typefaces used in Crowley's books belonged to Richard Grafton, who was the King's printer. This led some to think Grafton printed many of Crowley's books.

However, other experts argue that Crowley did have his own press. They suggest that Crowley might have borrowed printing equipment from other printers like John Day. They also point out that Grafton's equipment might have been passed around in ways that make it hard to tell who printed what.

According to this view, Crowley likely printed most of the books that had his name on them between 1550 and 1551. A few titles might have been printed by Day or Stephen Mierdman.

Who Supported Crowley?

It's not entirely clear who financially supported Robert Crowley's work. Some people thought he might have had help from powerful figures like Protector Somerset. This idea came from connections between Crowley and Grafton, who was linked to Somerset.

However, it's not certain that Crowley had direct support from these high-ranking people. Crowley's own writings often criticized the wealthy and powerful, including those who benefited from the Reformation. For example, his poem Philargyrie might have subtly criticized Somerset's actions.

One possible supporter was Lady Elizabeth Fane. Crowley dedicated his book Pleasure and Payne, Heaven and Hell... to her in 1551. Some historians believed she was his "liberal patroness." But Crowley's dedication seems more like a request for support, rather than a thank you for existing help. In the dedication, he urged powerful people to "live the gospel" and help the poor. He warned that if they didn't, God would punish England.

Other sources suggest connections between Crowley and important Protestant supporters under Queen Elizabeth, like William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley and Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester. Crowley's friend, the printer John Day, was also connected to Cecil.

More recently, some historians suggest that Crowley and others like him were supported by less famous but still powerful people, especially London merchants. These included merchants involved with the Muscovy Company. For example, John Quarles, a very rich merchant, was described as a "friend and patron of Robert Crowley." These merchants often had strong Protestant beliefs and helped spread Protestant texts.

Becoming a Church Leader and Exile

Robert Crowley became a deacon, a type of church leader, on September 28 or 29, 1551. He was known as a "stationer of the Parish of St Andrew, Holborn." His friend John Foxe had also become a deacon the year before.

The hopes for more church reforms were put on hold when King Edward VI died. Mary I became queen, and she was a Catholic. This led to a difficult time for Protestants in England.

Around 1553 or 1554, Crowley left England. He became one of the many English Protestants who went into exile to places like Frankfurt, Germany. In 1557, records show he was living in Frankfurt with his wife and child. He was listed as a "student" there.

In Frankfurt, Crowley was part of a group of English exiles who supported a more simple church structure, similar to the Genevan church. This group wanted to limit the power of the church leaders. Crowley was among those who favored this system, which was called presbyterian. This was different from the more traditional, hierarchical system that some other English exiles wanted.