1947–1950 in French Indochina facts for kids
This article is about important events in French Indochina (which included Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia) between 1947 and 1950. During this time, France still controlled these areas as colonies. However, Vietnamese people wanted their independence. This led to a big conflict called the First Indochina War.
In 1946, a civil war started in Vietnam. It was between the French forces and a group called the Viet Minh. The Việt Minh wanted Vietnam to be free from France and united as one country. Their leader was Ho Chi Minh, and they had declared Vietnam an independent country called the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. Many people in the Việt Minh were communists.
At first, the United States didn't pay much attention to Vietnam. But by 1950, the "Cold War" was getting more serious. This was a global competition between communist countries (led by the Soviet Union) and non-communist countries (led by the United States). The US worried that communism would spread in Vietnam. So, they started giving money and military help to France. At the same time, Communist China began sending weapons and training to the Việt Minh. Vietnam became a key place in this worldwide struggle.
You can learn more about the war itself in the article First Indochina War. This article covers the years after 1940–46 and is followed by other articles year by year.
Contents
Vietnam's Fight for Freedom: 1947
French and American Views
In 1947, a French minister named Marius Moutet visited Vietnam. He said the Việt Minh were acting like "barbarians" and that France needed a military victory before any talks could happen.
An American diplomat, Abbot Low Moffat, saw that France was facing a big problem in Vietnam. The US Secretary of State, George Marshall, also criticized France's "old-fashioned colonial outlook." But he also worried that Ho Chi Minh had "Communist connections."
France tried to give a little more power to the Vietnamese government in Cochinchina (southern Vietnam). They even planned an election, but it was delayed because of fighting.
The War Continues
France reported that 1,855 of its soldiers had been killed or hurt since the war began in December 1946. French forces had pushed the Việt Minh out of most big cities in northern and central Vietnam, like Hanoi and Huế. But Ho Chi Minh still had his government in Thái Nguyên, north of Hanoi.
A new French leader, Émile Bollaert, became High Commissioner for Indochina. He wanted to restart talks with the Việt Minh.
The Việt Minh forces near Hanoi had simple defenses. Some had rifles, others had knives and spears, and some even used bows and arrows! France had 94,000 soldiers in Vietnam, with 11,000 more on the way. The Việt Minh had about 60,000 full-time fighters and 100,000 part-time fighters.
Ho Chi Minh Seeks US Help
Ho Chi Minh tried to get support from the United States. His diplomat, Pham Ngoc Thach, went to Bangkok, Thailand. He met with an American military officer and wrote about how the fight was for Vietnam's freedom from France. Thach also wrote to American companies, offering them business deals if they invested in Vietnam.
The Việt Minh Foreign Minister, Hoàng Minh Giám, asked the US to officially recognize Vietnam's independence and offer help. However, Secretary of State Marshall refused to let US diplomats meet with the Việt Minh. He said France was against it. So, the US did not support Ho Chi Minh's plea for an independent Vietnam.
Failed Peace Talks and US Concerns
A French expert named Paul Mus met with Ho Chi Minh. Mus suggested a ceasefire and that the Việt Minh give up their weapons. Ho Chi Minh refused, saying he would be a coward to accept such terms. This was the last time Ho met with a French government representative.
An American diplomat in Hanoi, James O'Sullivan, reported that the destruction in northern Vietnam was "appalling." He blamed the Việt Minh for destroying things to stop the French, but also French bombing.
The US government asked its diplomats what they thought of the Việt Minh. Those in Southeast Asia said the Việt Minh were popular because they fought for freedom, and their ties to the Soviet Union were small. But American diplomats in France said Ho Chi Minh had "close connections in Communist circles" and would follow Moscow's orders if independent.
Vice Consul O'Sullivan in Hanoi disagreed. He said it was "curious" that France only saw a "communist menace" when the Vietnamese wouldn't obey them. He believed Ho's support came from being a nationalist, not a communist.
Big French Military Operations
American officials warned that France was planning a major attack on the Việt Minh. They suggested the US discourage France from trying to bring back old colonial rule.
French General Jean Étienne Valluy launched Operation Léa with 15,000 troops to destroy the Việt Minh and capture their leaders. Ho Chi Minh and military leader Võ Nguyên Giáp barely escaped. The attack got stuck, and Operation Léa failed.
Then, the French started Operation Ceinture with 12,000 soldiers. They captured some Việt Minh areas and claimed to have killed many fighters. But they didn't have enough soldiers to stay and control the land, so they pulled back.
The Hạ Long Bay Agreement
France and former emperor Bảo Đại signed the Hạ Long Bay agreement. France promised independence to northern Vietnam, but it would still be part of the "French Union." France would control foreign affairs and defense. This agreement did not include the Việt Minh. Bảo Đại went back to France and stayed there for months, even after signing, while France tried to convince him to return to Vietnam.
Vietnam's Future: 1948
Continued Fighting and US Views
An American Consul in Hanoi, Edwin C. Rendell, reported that the French attacks had not broken the Việt Minh's strong resistance. The Việt Minh were increasing their raids on French army posts and convoys.
Ho Chi Minh issued a rule that no one should criticize the United States. He still hoped to get US support.
Bảo Đại finally returned to Vietnam for a new agreement. France recognized Vietnam's independence within the French Union and agreed to eventually unite the three parts of Vietnam. But France still controlled defense, foreign affairs, and money. Bảo Đại went back to France again, wanting more promises. This agreement had little public support.
The US was becoming more against the Việt Minh. The US Consul in Saigon, George M. Abbott, said a truce with the Việt Minh would mean non-communists in Vietnam would be "swallowed up." He also said France needed to quickly give real independence to a Bảo Đại government.
The US State Department decided that keeping France as an ally against the Soviet Union in Europe was more important than pushing France to give Vietnam more independence. They knew Ho Chi Minh was strong, but they didn't want to get too involved unless they had a clear solution.
French and Việt Minh Strength
France had about 100,000 soldiers in Vietnam. The Việt Minh had 250,000 full and part-time fighters and controlled more than half of the country's people. The Việt Minh often attacked French forces. In 1948, France had over 8,000 casualties in the Saigon area alone, and over 30,000 since the war began in 1946.
The Cold War Heats Up: 1949
US Concerns and New Agreements
US Under Secretary of State Robert A. Lovett said the US shouldn't fully support the Bảo Đại government, which only existed because of French soldiers. However, the American Embassy in Paris reported that the Bảo Đại government was "the only non-communist solution."
France and Bảo Đại signed the Élysée Accords in Paris, creating the State of Vietnam. This agreement confirmed Vietnam's self-rule and united the three parts of Vietnam. But France still controlled the military and foreign affairs. Ho Chi Minh rejected this agreement, and it didn't get much support in Vietnam. Bảo Đại returned to Vietnam as Head of State after the agreement was approved.
At a US State Department meeting, Consul General George M. Abbott said the only choices were a colonial war or a communist government if the Bảo Đại government failed.
Global Events Change Everything
The Soviet Union exploded a nuclear bomb, ending the US's sole ownership of nuclear weapons. This made the US and its allies even more afraid that the Soviet Union would try to spread communism to more countries, including Vietnam.
Mao Zedong, the leader of the Communist Party of China, announced the creation of the People's Republic of China. The victory of communism in China made the US even more worried that communism would also win in Vietnam, and that Vietnam would become a puppet state of China and the Soviet Union.
The US Steps In: 1950
US and China Get Involved
A US Department of Defense committee suggested spending $15 million on military aid to fight communism in Vietnam. Secretary of State Dean Acheson thought US military aid might be the "missing piece" to defeat the communists. So, the US started getting financially involved.
Eight Chinese military advisors left Beijing to help the Việt Minh in North Vietnam. They would start working in March.
Communist China and the Soviet Union officially recognized the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (Ho Chi Minh's government) as the only real government of Vietnam. Both promised military and economic help to the Việt Minh.
The New York Times newspaper said that international communism, led by Moscow, was cleverly using the war in Indochina to weaken France. The newspaper also reported that France might be able to hold off the communists if they had the right equipment.
Việt Minh leader Ho Chi Minh traveled to Beijing, China. The trip took him almost a month, including 17 days of walking from Vietnam to southern China. Chinese leader Liu Shaoqi promised Chinese help to Ho.
Secretary of State Acheson announced that the US officially recognized Bảo Đại's government, called the State of Vietnam. Acheson promised money and military aid to France and Bảo Đại's government. So, the US, despite its doubts about Bảo Đại and French colonial rule, decided to support them.
Ho Chi Minh then visited Moscow, Soviet Union. Soviet leader Joseph Stalin didn't fully trust Ho's communist beliefs and didn't offer Soviet aid. However, Chinese leader Mao Zedong, who was also in Moscow, offered "all the military assistance Vietnam needed."
Secretary of State Dean Acheson called Ho Chi Minh "the deadly enemy of independence in Indochina."
France officially asked the United States for military and economic aid for Indochina, totaling $94 million.
US Ambassador Loy Henderson said that Bảo Đại's government "reflected the nationalist hopes of the people" more than other groups. But in reality, Bảo Đại's government controlled less than half of Vietnam's land and people.
A State Department official, W. Walton Butterworth, disagreed with Acheson. He warned that believing aid would solve the problem in Vietnam was a "dangerous delusion." He was soon replaced by Dean Rusk.
French officials told the American Embassy in Paris that they might have to leave Vietnam without US aid. Historian Ronald H. Spector noted that avoiding French defeat became more important to the US than to France.
R. Allen Griffin led a US group to Vietnam to suggest how the US should prioritize its economic aid. US Navy ships and their commander visited Saigon, showing support for France and displaying military strength.
US Policy and the Domino Theory
As more Americans agreed that US aid was needed to stop communism in Indochina, diplomat Charlton Ogburn warned against it. He said they didn't know enough about Indochina and that the Việt Minh had fought the French to a standstill. He believed American aid wouldn't easily defeat them. Even if defeated, the Việt Minh could go back to guerrilla warfare and wait.
US President Harry Truman approved NSC 68, a secret plan. It described a scary vision of the Soviet Union trying to control the world. This idea was strengthened by the recent communist victory in China and fears of communism in the US. The plan suggested a huge increase in US military spending and aid to allies. It became the guide for the "militarization of the Cold War."
The US Joint Chiefs of Staff wrote that French Indochina was a "vital" part of stopping communism from spreading. They said if Indochina fell to communism, then Burma, Thailand, the Philippines, Malaya, and Indonesia would likely fall too. This was one of the first times the "domino theory" was mentioned, which became a big part of US policy.
The American magazine The New Republic said Southeast Asia was the center of the Cold War and that America was late but "on our way" to help.
Acheson told the US Senate Foreign Relations Committee that France had to carry the main burden in Indochina. He said the US would help, but not take over.
The US State Department announced that the US would provide military and economic aid to Southeast Asia, especially to Bảo Đại's government. This meant the US was now directly involved in the events in Vietnam.
Việt Minh Gains Strength
Liu Shaoqi, a Chinese Communist Party leader, ordered the Chinese military to plan how to help the Việt Minh. This included training and equipment. Within months, China sent 14,000 guns, 1,700 machine guns, and other gear. They used 200 trucks to move supplies from southern China into northern Vietnam. By fall, General Giap had a fighting force strong enough to challenge the French.
The Korean War began, making the US believe even more that communism was a single, worldwide force led by the Soviet Union, trying to overthrow friendly governments.
The first American military aid arrived in Saigon: 8 C-47 transport planes. President Truman ordered this aid because North Korea attacked South Korea. The US believed all communist actions were connected, so the attack in Korea made them more worried about the Việt Minh in Vietnam.
Việt Minh forces were estimated to have grown to 250,000 people, including 120,000 in regular army units. The rest were local fighters. About 15,000 Chinese helped the Việt Minh with training and advice. The French had about 150,000 soldiers, and the pro-French Vietnamese army had about 16,000.
The first US military advisors arrived in Saigon. This group, called the Military Assistance Advisory Group (MAAG), would eventually have 128 people. Their job was to watch over how US military aid was given to the French.
The Melby-Erskine Mission visited Vietnam and reported to the US government. They were very pessimistic about French efforts and suggested big changes, but also recommended giving France the military aid they asked for. Their advice was not followed.
French Defeats and US Reactions
General Giap, the Việt Minh commander, attacked a French post at Đông Khê with 5 regiments. The post was captured two days later, and most of the French defenders were killed. This left the large French base at Cao Bằng isolated.
The French retreat from Cao Bằng was a disaster. The Việt Minh repeatedly attacked their convoys. The French suffered 6,000 casualties, with 4,800 dead or missing. Only 600 French soldiers made it to safety. The Việt Minh also had many casualties, possibly 9,000 killed.
A US military report said that the long-term solution in Indochina was for France to make big political and economic changes. It also said that giving France more aid before reforms would make it less likely for France to act. The study concluded that Vietnam was not important enough for the US to send its own military.
US Army Brigadier General Francis G. Brink took command of the US military advisory group in Saigon.
French defeats in Vietnam led to many reviews of US policy. US Army Chief of Staff General J. Lawton Collins said the US should be ready to send its own armed forces to defend Indochina. Others were more doubtful about increasing US involvement.
The Việt Minh had pushed the French out of their northernmost bases, and the Chinese border area was now under Việt Minh control. French people in Hanoi panicked, and plans were made to evacuate them.
US President Truman approved another $33 million in aid for the French in Vietnam, including 21 B-26 bombers that France had requested.
The Pau conference between French and Vietnamese, Cambodian, and Laotian representatives ended. France made some promises of independence, but still kept control over many government functions.
France and the Bảo Đại government signed an agreement in Da Lat to create an independent Vietnamese army. However, most of its officers would be French. Most Vietnamese soldiers in the French army were moved to this new Vietnamese army. Even though the US was becoming very important in supporting France, they were not invited to these discussions.
