Berber Revolt facts for kids
Quick facts for kids Berber Revolt |
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| Part of the Fitnas | |||||||||
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| Umayyad Caliphate | Berber insurgents | ||||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
| Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik Ubayd Allah ibn al-Habhab Khalid ibn Abi Habib † Uqba ibn al-Hajjaj Kulthum ibn Iyad al-Qushayri † Abd al-Rahman ibn Habib Handhala ibn Safwan Balj ibn Bishr al-Qushayri Habib ibn Abi Ubayda † Tha'laba ibn Salama |
Khalid ibn Hamid Maysara al-Matghari  Salim Abu Yusuf al-Azdi Ukkasha ibn Ayyub Abd al-Wahid ibn Yazid † |
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Classical to Late Antiquity
(8th century BC – 7th century AD) |
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The Berber Revolt was a big uprising that happened between 740 and 743 AD. It was a major event during the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, which was a large Islamic empire. This revolt was the first time a part of the empire successfully broke away from the main Arab government in Damascus.
The revolt started in Tangiers in 740. It was led by Maysara al-Matghari and was fueled by preachers called Kharijites. These preachers taught a strict form of Islam and promised that all Muslims would be treated equally. The revolt quickly spread across North Africa (the Maghreb) and even into al-Andalus (modern-day Spain and Portugal).
The Umayyads managed to keep control of Ifriqiya (modern Tunisia, eastern Algeria, and western Libya) and al-Andalus. However, they lost control of the rest of the Maghreb. After failing to capture the Umayyad capital of Kairouan, the Berber rebel armies split up. The western Maghreb then broke into many small Berber states, ruled by local leaders and Kharijite imams.
The Berber Revolt was a huge challenge for Caliph Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik. It led to the creation of some of the first independent Muslim states outside the main Caliphate.
Contents
Why the Revolt Started
Unfair Treatment of Berbers
The main reasons for the revolt were the unfair policies of the Umayyad governors. These governors ruled from Kairouan in Ifriqiya. Their power covered all of North Africa west of Egypt and also al-Andalus.
From the very beginning of the Muslim conquest of North Africa, Arab commanders often treated their non-Arab helpers, especially the Berbers, poorly. When the Umayyads arrived in North Africa, most people were Christian or pagan. Some Berbers quickly became Muslim and helped spread Islam. But the Arab rulers still treated them as second-class citizens.
Taxes and Duties
Berbers did most of the fighting during the Umayyad conquest of Hispania (Spain). However, they received less of the war's rewards. They were also often given the hardest jobs. For example, Berbers were sent to the front lines, while Arab forces stayed behind. They also had to guard dangerous borders.
Even though some early Arab governors, like Musa ibn Nusair, treated their Berber officers well, later governors were much harsher. They continued to collect special taxes and even demanded slaves from non-Arab people who had become Muslim. This went against Islamic law. This unfair practice became very common during the rule of Caliphs Walid I and Sulayman.
In 718, Caliph Umar II tried to fix this. He stopped the unfair taxes and slave demands on non-Arab Muslims. This helped calm things down. But later, expensive wars in the 720s and 730s forced the government to find new ways to get money. During Caliph Hisham's rule (starting in 724), the rules were bent again. For example, a land tax called kharaj was tied to the land itself. This meant that even if a Muslim owned the land, they still had to pay the tax.
Kharijite Influence
Because of these unfair practices, many Berbers became angry. They started listening to radical Kharijite activists from the east. These activists arrived in the Maghreb in the 720s. The Kharijites preached a very strict form of Islam. They promised a new system where all Muslims would be equal, no matter their background. They also said Islamic law would be followed very strictly.
The Kharijite message was very appealing to the Berbers. Their ideas slowly spread among Berber soldiers and communities. There were small revolts by Berber soldiers, but these were put down. One governor, Yazid ibn Abi Muslim, who brought back the unfair taxes and even branded the hands of his Berber guards, was killed in 721.
In 734, Ubayd Allah ibn al-Habhab became the Umayyad governor in Kairouan. He was in charge of all the Maghreb and al-Andalus. He immediately started to collect more money for the government. He did this by heavily taxing non-Arab people and demanding slaves again. His deputies, Oqba ibn al-Hajjaj al-Saluli in Córdoba and Omar ibn el-Moradi in Tangier, were told to do the same. The failure of expensive wars in Gaul (modern France) between 732 and 737 made the tax burden even worse.
The Revolt Begins
Uprising in the Maghreb
The Umayyad tax collectors finally pushed the Berbers too far. It is said that Omar ibn al-Moradi, the governor's deputy in Tangiers, declared the Berbers in his area a "conquered people." This meant he could take their property and enslave them. He also doubled their taxes.
This was the final straw. Inspired by the Kharijite preachers, Berber tribes in western Morocco decided to openly rebel. These tribes included the Ghomara, Berghwata, and Miknasa. They chose Maysara al-Matghari as their leader. Some Arab writers said he was just a water-carrier, but he was probably an important Berber chief.
The Berbers waited for the right moment. It came in early 740. The powerful Umayyad general, Habib ibn Abi Ubaida al-Fihri, was ordered to lead a large army to attack Byzantine Sicily. Habib gathered most of the Umayyad army from Morocco and left.
As soon as Habib was gone, Maysara brought his Berber armies to attack Tangiers. The city quickly fell to the rebels, and the hated governor Omar al-Moradi was killed. Maysara then took the title of amir al-mu'minin, meaning "Commander of the Faithful" or "Caliph." He left a Berber group in Tangier and then swept through western Morocco. More Berbers joined his army, and they defeated Umayyad groups from the Straits down to the Sous valley. One of the governors killed was Ismail ibn Ubayd Allah, the son of the main Umayyad governor in Kairouan.
The Umayyad governor in Kairouan, Ubayd Allah ibn al-Habhab, was surprised. He had very few soldiers left. He immediately sent messages to General Habib in Sicily, telling him to come back quickly. Meanwhile, Ubayd Allah gathered a group of Arab nobles from Kairouan. He put them under the command of Khalid ibn Abi Habib al-Fihri. He sent them to Tangiers to stop the rebels while waiting for Habib's return. A smaller army was sent to Tlemcen to protect it.
Maysara's Berber forces met Khalid ibn Abi Habib's Arab army near Tangiers. After a short fight, Maysara ordered his armies to retreat to Tangier. Khalid ibn Abi Habib did not chase them. He just held his position south of Tangier, blocking the city, and waited for Habib's army.
During this time, the Berber rebels had a change in leadership. The Berber tribal leaders removed Maysara from power and killed him. They then chose Khalid ibn Hamid al-Zanati, a Zenata Berber chief, as their new "caliph." We don't know exactly why Maysara was removed. Maybe he seemed afraid in battle, or perhaps the Kharijite preachers found fault with him. It could also be that the Zenata chiefs, being closer to the fighting, felt they should lead.
The new Berber leader, Khalid ibn Hamid al-Zanati, decided to attack the Arab army right away before they could get more soldiers. The Berber rebels under Khalid ibn Hamid completely defeated Khalid ibn Abi Habib's Arab cavalry. This battle is known as the Battle of the Nobles because so many important Arab leaders were killed. This happened around October or November 740.
The Arabs were shocked by this defeat. When they heard the news, the reserve army in Tlemcen panicked. The Umayyad commander ordered his soldiers to arrest people in Tlemcen, which led to many killings. This caused a huge uprising in the city. The Berber people of Tlemcen quickly drove out the Umayyad soldiers. The revolt then spread to central Maghreb (modern Algeria).
Habib ibn Abi Obeida's army from Sicily arrived too late to stop the massacre. They realized they couldn't fight the Berber army alone. They retreated to Tlemcen to gather more soldiers, but found that city was also in chaos. Habib then asked Kairouan for more soldiers, and the request was sent to Damascus.
Caliph Hisham was furious when he heard the news. He reportedly said he would send a huge Arab army to crush the revolt.
Trouble in al-Andalus
Some stories say that the Andalusian governor, Uqba ibn al-Hajjaj, sent an army to help the Arabs in Tangiers, but they were also defeated. However, modern historians don't believe this story.
Still, the news of the Berber victory in Morocco spread throughout al-Andalus. Berbers made up a much larger part of the population than Arabs there. Fearing their own Berber soldiers might rebel, the Arab leaders in al-Andalus quickly removed Uqba ibn al-Hajjaj in January 741. They brought back the previous governor, Abd al-Malik ibn Katan al-Fihri, who was more popular with both Arabs and Berbers.
The Syrian Army Arrives
In February 741, Caliph Hisham chose Kulthum ibn Iyad al-Qasi to replace the old governor in Ifriqiya. Kulthum was to bring a new Arab army of 30,000 soldiers. Most of these came from Syria, and 3,000 more were picked up in Egypt. Hisham named Kulthum's nephew, Balj ibn Bishr al-Qushayri, as his second-in-command.
The Syrian cavalry, led by Balj ibn Bishr, arrived first in Kairouan in the summer of 741. Their stay was not good. The Syrians were arrogant and argued with the city officials. The Syrians took over parts of the city, demanding supplies without caring about local rules.
The Syrian soldiers were from different Arab tribes than the Arabs already living in Ifriqiya and al-Andalus. This caused old tribal rivalries to flare up, leading to more arguments.
Kulthum ibn Iyad himself did not enter Kairouan. He sent a message putting Abd al-Rahman ibn Oqba al-Ghaffari, the city's judge, in charge. Kulthum then quickly went to meet the remaining Ifriqiyan army (about 40,000 soldiers) led by Habib ibn Abi Obeida al-Fihri near Tlemcen.
The meeting between the North African and Syrian armies was difficult. The Ifriqiyan soldiers had heard about the Syrians' bad behavior in Kairouan. The Syrians, angry about their cold welcome, treated the Ifriqiyan soldiers poorly. Habib and Balj argued, and the armies almost fought each other. Kulthum ibn Iyad managed to keep them together, but the bad feelings remained.
The Berber rebel army, led by Khalid ibn Hamid al-Zanati, was very large (around 200,000 soldiers). However, they were poorly equipped. Many Berber fighters only had stones and knives. But they knew the land well, had high spirits, and were very religious due to the Kharijite teachings.
The Berber and Arab armies finally fought at the Battle of Bagdoura in October-November 741. It happened near the Sebou River (close to modern Fes). Kulthum ibn Iyad made several mistakes, ignoring the advice of the experienced Ifriqiyan soldiers. Berber fighters on horseback separated the Syrian cavalry. Then, the large Berber foot army attacked the Arab soldiers. The Arab armies were quickly defeated. About two-thirds of the Arab army were killed or captured. Both the new governor, Kulthum ibn Iyad al-Qasi, and the Ifriqiyan commander, Habib ibn Abi Obeida al-Fihri, died in the battle.
The Syrian soldiers, now only about 10,000 strong, were gathered by Kulthum's nephew, Balj ibn Bishr. They fled towards the straits, hoping to cross to al-Andalus. A small group of Ifriqiyan soldiers joined them. The rest of the Ifriqiyan forces scattered and fled back to Kairouan. Most of the Berber rebel army chased the Syrians and surrounded them in Ceuta.
Attack on Kairouan
The Zenata Berber leader Khalid ibn Hamid al-Zanati, who led the Berbers to two great victories, disappears from history after Bagdoura (741). But news of the Arab defeat encouraged other Berber tribes to join the revolt. Berber uprisings broke out across the Maghreb and al-Andalus.
The most immediate danger was in southern Ifriqiya. There, a Kharijite leader named Uqasha ibn Ayub al-Fezari raised a Berber army. He attacked Gabès and Gafsa. The Kairouan judge, Abd al-Rahman ibn Oqba al-Ghaffari, quickly led the remaining Ifriqiyan army south. He defeated Uqasha's forces near Gafsa in December 741. But the judge had too few Arab soldiers to chase them. Uqasha immediately started to rebuild his army.
After hearing about the disaster at Bagdoura, Caliph Hisham ordered the Umayyad governor of Egypt, Handhala ibn Safwan al-Kalbi, to take charge of Ifriqiya. In February 742, Handhala ibn Safwan quickly brought his Egyptian army west. He reached Kairouan around April 742, just as Uqasha was returning to attack again. Handhala's forces pushed Uqasha back.
While Uqasha was gathering his forces again, he met a large Berber army coming from the west. This army was led by the Hawwara Berber chief Abd al-Wahid ibn Yazid al-Hawwari. Abd al-Wahid's army had about 300,000 Berber soldiers, possibly the largest Berber army ever seen. Uqasha and Abd al-Wahid agreed to attack Kairouan together. Uqasha would take a southern route, and Abd al-Wahid would lead his large army through the northern passes. They planned to meet in Kairouan.
Handhala ibn Safwan knew he had to stop them from joining forces. He sent cavalry to slow down Abd al-Wahid in the north. Then, Handhala took most of his soldiers south. He crushed Uqasha's army in a bloody battle at al-Qarn and captured him. But Handhala's army also suffered many losses. He now faced Abd al-Wahid's huge army. Handhala rushed back to Kairouan and armed everyone in the city to boost his numbers. He then set out again.
In one of the bloodiest battles of the Berber wars, Handhala ibn Safwan defeated Abd al-Wahid ibn Yazid's large Berber army at al-Asnam. This happened around May 742, just three miles outside Kairouan. Between 120,000 and 180,000 Berbers, including Abd al-Wahid, died in that single battle. Uqasha was killed shortly after.
Kairouan and the heart of Ifriqiya were saved for the Caliphate. However, Handhala ibn Safwan still had the difficult job of bringing the western provinces, which were still controlled by Berbers, back into the empire. He would not get the chance to do this.
Revolt in al-Andalus
The change in leadership in al-Andalus in early 741 was meant to prevent a revolt. But once the news of the disaster at Bagdoura spread, a general Berber uprising in al-Andalus could not be stopped. In October 741, Berber soldiers in the north rebelled. They removed their Arab commanders and formed their own rebel army. They left their forts to march against the Andalusian Arabs in the south.
The names of their leaders are not known, but the Andalusian Berber rebel army had three groups. One group aimed to take Toledo, a main military city. Another aimed for Córdoba, the Umayyad capital. The third group planned to take Algeciras, hoping to capture the Andalusian fleet to bring more Berber soldiers from North Africa.
With the northern forts suddenly empty, the Christian king Alfonso I of Asturias quickly sent his troops to take them. The northwest was captured easily. Alfonso also raided the areas along the upper Ebro River, which were permanently lost to al-Andalus. The Asturians destroyed towns and villages along the Douro River. They also moved people from the lowlands back to the mountains. This created an empty area called the Desert of the Duero between Asturias in the north and al-Andalus in the south. This empty border stayed for several centuries. It is said that some Berber mountain people remained in the highlands around Astorga and León. These trapped Berber communities were called "Maragatos" by the local Christians. Even though they later became Christian, the Maragatos kept their unique clothes, customs, and way of life, which came from their Berber origins, until recent times.
Syrians in Al-Andalus
During the winter of 741-742, the remaining Syrian army, about 10,000 men, led by Balj ibn Bishr, were trapped in Ceuta. They were surrounded by Berber rebels. The Andalusian ruler, Abd al-Malik ibn Qatan al-Fihri, was worried that having the Syrians in al-Andalus would make things worse.
But soon, the Andalusian governor heard that the Berber rebel armies from the northwest were marching south in three groups, heading for Toledo, Córdoba, and Algeciras.
The Andalusian governor, Abd al-Malik, did not have enough Arab soldiers. He realized he had to use the trapped Syrian army to defeat the Berbers. After careful talks, Abd al-Malik allowed the Syrians to cross to al-Andalus. They promised to return to North Africa within a year after the Berber problem was solved. Hostages were taken to make sure the Syrians kept their promise.
The Syrian soldiers under Balj ibn Bishr crossed the straits in early 742. They immediately went to Medina-Sidonia, where they stopped and defeated the Berber group heading for Algeciras. The Syrians then joined the Andalusian Arabs. They crushed the main Berber rebel army in a fierce battle outside Córdoba in the spring of 742. Soon after, they defeated the third Berber army, which was attacking Toledo.
The Berber rebellion in al-Andalus was put down. However, the Syrians showed no signs of leaving. When the Andalusian governor, Abd al-Malik ibn Qatan ibn Fihri, insisted they leave, Balj ibn Bishr simply removed him from power. Balj declared himself governor, saying he was the rightful successor to his uncle, the late Ifriqiyan governor Kulthum ibn Iyad al-Qasi. To get revenge for what happened in Ceuta, Balj ordered the elderly Ibn Qatan to be tortured to death.
A civil war quickly broke out. The sons of the late governor, Qatan and Umayya, rallied the Andalusian Arabs against the Syrian soldiers. The Syrians decisively defeated the Andalusians at the Battle of Aqua Portora outside Córdoba in August 742. But Balj ibn Bishr was badly wounded and died. Command of the Syrian armies went to Thalaba ibn Salama al-Amili. For the next few months, the Syrians stayed in their camps. The Andalusians, joined by the remaining Berber rebels, gathered in Mérida.
The next few months were spent in a civil war between the Arabs. The Berber issue became less important. Eventually, tired of fighting, both sides asked the Ifriqiyan emir Handhala ibn Safwan al-Kalbi to solve the problem. Handhala sent his cousin Abu al-Khattar ibn Darar al-Kalbi as the new governor for al-Andalus. Abu al-Khattar arrived in May 743. He immediately worked to bring peace to al-Andalus. He freed prisoners (both Arab and Berber) and found a solution for the Syrian soldiers. He decided to spread the Syrian soldiers across al-Andalus. He gave them land in areas that were not heavily populated. For example, soldiers from Damascus settled in Elvira (Granada), and soldiers from Jordan settled in Rayyu (Málaga and Archidona). The Syrian soldiers were given a third of the taxes collected in their areas. They were also responsible for collecting taxes and serving the Andalusian governor.
The arrival of the Syrian soldiers had a huge impact on the history of al-Andalus. They greatly increased the number of Arabs on the Iberian peninsula. This helped strengthen Muslim control over the south, which became the heart of al-Andalus. However, they also caused problems. The Syrian soldiers did not want to be governed. They lived in an almost independent way, which made the governor of al-Andalus much weaker.
What Happened Next
People often say the Great Berber Revolt "ended" in 742 or 743. This was after the Berber armies failed to capture Kairouan or Córdoba. However, the Berbers kept control of Morocco and the western and central parts of Algeria. This led to the creation of new states. These included the Barghwata state in Tamesna by 744, Abu Qurra's state in Tlemcen by 742, and the Midrarid emirate in Sijilmassa by 758. Meanwhile, Arab rule continued over Al-Andalus and Ifriqiya, including eastern Algeria.
Later, new ruling families came to power with Berber support. For example, the Rustamids, who were of Persian origin, set up an Imamate (a religious state) in Tahert, Algeria, by 761. The Sharifian Idrisids came to power in Morocco by 789. They are seen as the founding family of the modern Moroccan state.
During this time, many areas were ruled by Kharijite rebels. These areas included Djerba, Wargla, Setif, Tozeur, Gafsa, and the Djebel Nafusa.
See also
In Spanish: Revuelta bereber para niños
- Battle of Bagdoura
- Battle of the Nobles
- Muslim conquest of the Maghreb
- Berbers and Islam
Sources
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- Kennedy, Hugh (1996) Muslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of al-Andalus, New York and London: Longman.
- Mercier, E. (1888) Histoire de l'Afrqiue septentrionale, V. 1, Paris: Leroux. Repr. Elibron Classics, 2005.
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