History of Bougainville facts for kids
Bougainville, a special region in Papua New Guinea, has been home to people for at least 29,000 years. Scientists found old tools and items in Kilu Cave on Buka Island that prove this. The region is named after Bougainville Island, which is the biggest island in the Solomon Islands archipelago. Many smaller islands are also part of Bougainville.
The first people to arrive in Bougainville were related to the Papuans and Aboriginal Australians. About 3,000 years ago, another group of people called Austronesians came. They were part of the Lapita culture and brought farming and pottery with them. Today, people in Bougainville are a mix of these two groups. They speak both Austronesian and non-Austronesian languages.
In 1616, Dutch explorers Willem Schouten and Jacob Le Maire were the first Europeans to see the islands. The main island was later named after a French admiral, Louis Antoine de Bougainville, who arrived in 1768. In 1886, the German Empire took control of Bougainville, making it a "protectorate" (a territory protected and controlled by a stronger power). The rest of the Solomon Islands became part of the British Empire in 1893. The borders we see today between Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands were set in 1899. When Germany took over Bougainville, it didn't change the economy much, but many islanders became Christians because of Catholic missions.
During World War I, in 1914, Australian soldiers took over German New Guinea, including Bougainville. After the war, the League of Nations (an early international organization) gave Australia the job of managing Bougainville as the Territory of New Guinea. In World War II, Japanese forces invaded and took over Bougainville in 1942. They used it as a base for their operations in the Pacific. The Allied forces fought hard to get the islands back, and Australia regained control in 1945.
In 1949, Bougainville became part of the Territory of Papua and New Guinea, which Australia also managed. A large copper mine, the Panguna mine, opened in 1969 and soon caused many problems. In 1975, a group in Bougainville tried to become independent and formed the Republic of the North Solomons. However, the new government of Papua New Guinea (PNG), which had just become independent itself, took back control the next year. Tensions continued, leading to the Bougainville Civil War (1988–1998). Thousands of people died as the Bougainville Revolutionary Army (BRA) fought for independence against the Papua New Guinea Defence Force. A peace agreement was signed in 2001. This agreement created an autonomous (self-governing) region and promised a vote on independence. This vote was held in 2019.
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Ancient History of Bougainville
The oldest known place where people lived in Bougainville is Kilu Cave on Buka Island. Tools and other items found there show that people lived in the cave between 28,700 and 20,100 years ago. Long ago, until about 10,000 years ago, Bougainville Island was part of a much larger landmass called "Greater Bougainville." This land stretched from the northern tip of Buka Island down to the Nggela Islands. The first people likely came from the Bismarck Archipelago to the north, where human settlements date back 35,000 to 40,000 years.
The first people to settle in Bougainville were Melanesians. They were probably related to the Papuans and Aboriginal Australians we know today. About 3,000 years ago, a new group of people, the Austronesian peoples, arrived. They brought the Lapita culture with them. These Austronesians were farmers and introduced new things like pottery, pigs, dogs, and chickens to Bougainville. Their arrival also led to some birds and native animals disappearing. Today, people in Bougainville still speak both Austronesian and non-Austronesian languages. Over time, the different groups mixed a lot, sharing their genes and cultures.
First European Visitors
Dutch explorers Willem Schouten and Jacob Le Maire were the first Europeans to see what is now Bougainville in 1616. They sailed past Takuu Atoll and Nissan Island. In 1643, another Dutch trip led by Abel Tasman was the first to meet the islanders and describe how they looked. Europeans didn't visit again until 1767, when British naval officer Philip Carteret came and named the Carteret Islands. Carteret was also the first European to see Buka Island. The next year, a Frenchman named Louis Antoine de Bougainville sailed along the east coast of Bougainville Island, which is now named after him. He also named Buka Island, after a word he heard repeated from canoes coming from the island.
German Control
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On April 10, 1886, the United Kingdom and Germany agreed to divide the Solomon Islands. This agreement placed Buka, Bougainville, and several other islands under German control. This "protectorate" was officially set up on October 28, 1886. The German Emperor, Kaiser Wilhelm I, then gave a company permission to govern the area. The rest of the Solomon Islands became a British protectorate. The current border between Bougainville and the country of Solomon Islands was set in 1899.
At first, German control didn't change the economy much. A few coconut plantations were started, but they didn't make much money. The area was mainly seen as a place to find workers for other plantations in New Guinea. By 1905, there were hardly any permanent trading posts run by non-natives. More businesses started to appear around 1908. By 1913, a lot of land had been bought, mostly by Australian companies. About 220 kilometers (137 miles) of roads were built, and a hospital for local people was started. By 1914, there were 74 Europeans living in the area, many of whom were missionaries.
World War I and Australian Rule
When World War I began, Australian soldiers took over Bougainville in December 1914. After the war, the Treaty of Versailles made the former German territory a "mandate" (a territory managed by another country), and Australia was given the responsibility. The Australian military government was replaced by a civilian government in 1920. This new government took over properties owned by Germans and sent them out of the country.
The Australian government continued to try and keep peace by getting involved in local conflicts. This also helped them find more workers for plantations. In 1915, police were sent to protect against raids from mountain tribes.
In 1921, Bougainville had a population of 46,832 people. The Australian officer in charge was based in Kieta and had a police force of 40 local officers. The Australian government tried to be less harsh than the military. They also encouraged people to live in larger "line villages" instead of small hamlets. This made it easier to collect taxes and get men to work on plantations. A German researcher, Richard Thurnwald, visited in 1933 and noticed many changes. People were more able to read and write, money was being used, and old traditions like headhunting were decreasing.
In the 1920s, Protestant missionaries from New Zealand and the Seventh-day Adventist Church arrived. This caused some tension with the existing Catholic missionaries.
World War II
In 1942, Japanese forces took control of Bougainville. They used it as a base to attack other Allied areas. In November 1943, American soldiers landed on the west coast of Bougainville. Soon after, a big naval battle, the Battle of Empress Augusta Bay, happened between the US Navy and the Japanese Navy. The Americans won and took control of the seas. A major land fight followed from November 1943 to April 1944, as the Allies tried to take over the western part of the island, especially an area called "Torokina." The Americans built defenses and airfields there.
The Japanese hid in the mountains and jungles and launched a counterattack in 1944. A key part of their attack was at a place the Americans called "Hellsapoppin Ridge." The American soldiers and airmen fought back strongly, breaking the Japanese army's power on Bougainville. The remaining Japanese soldiers retreated and were left to weaken for the rest of the war. Between 1943 and 1945, over 17,500 Japanese soldiers died from fighting, disease, or hunger.
In April 1943, Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, the leader of the Japanese Navy, was killed over Bougainville Island. His plane was shot down by American fighter planes during a secret mission called Operation Vengeance.
In 1945, the Australian Army took over from the Americans. Australia regained control of Bougainville and Papua New Guinea, which became a United Nations trust territory. The remaining Japanese soldiers on Bougainville refused to surrender until the end of World War II on September 2, 1945. They were then sent back to Japan.
Start of the Independence Movement
Bougainville has a lot of copper and possibly gold. Mining this copper has caused many social problems over the last 50 years. Local people tried twice to break away from Papua New Guinea because of concerns about the mining.
The Hahalis Welfare Society, started in 1959, protested against Australian authorities trying to collect a "head tax." In 1962, over 60 people were hurt in fights with the police.
In 1964, an Australian company, CRA Exploration, started looking for minerals in the Panguna area. The Panguna mine opened in 1969.
The first independence movement began in the late 1960s. At this time, many countries in Asia and Africa were gaining independence from colonial rule. The local people of Bougainville complained to the Australian government about how the Panguna mine was managed. They felt they weren't getting enough money from the mining on their land. They even sued for more money, but the court said that because Papua New Guinea was an "external territory," it didn't have the same rules as mainland Australia.
In 1972, Australia gave Bougainville some self-rule, but this didn't stop the independence movement. Relations got worse after two senior Bougainvillean officials were killed in December 1972. This made islanders very angry and strengthened the independence movement.
By 1974, a compromise was almost reached that would give Bougainville more self-rule. However, the Papua New Guinea government didn't agree to give a specific share of the mine's profits to the people of Bougainville. In May 1975, talks completely broke down.
Republic of North Solomons
On May 28, 1975, the government in Bougainville decided to break away from Papua New Guinea. They announced they would declare independence on September 1, just before Papua New Guinea's own independence day. On September 1, they declared the 'Unilateral Declaration of Independence of the Republic of North Solomons'.
They tried to get other countries to recognize them through the United Nations, but they were not successful. They also failed to unite with the Solomon Islands. In early 1976, the Bougainvillean government realized they had to accept Papua New Guinea's authority.
Later that year, both governments signed the 'Bougainville Agreement'. This agreement gave the island self-rule within Papua New Guinea. The PNG government promised full independence in five years, but this promise was not kept. For the rest of the 1970s and early 1980s, relations were tense but mostly peaceful. In 1981, disagreements about the mine started again, leading to violence in 1988.
Conflict for Independence
Growing Problems
The Panguna mine and how its money was shared were the main problems between Bougainville and the PNG government. The mine was the biggest source of income for Papua New Guinea from 1975 until it closed in 1989. The national government received 20% of the mine's profits, but Bougainvilleans only received a very small share (0.5–1.25%).
The money from the mine was very important for Papua New Guinea's economy. However, the people of Bougainville felt they were getting little benefit and were suffering all the environmental damage. They said the Jaba River was poisoned, causing birth defects and harming animals like the flying fox and fish. Critics also said that the mining company created a system where white workers had better facilities than local workers.
Rebellion Begins
By late 1988, two local leaders, Francis Ona and Pepetua Serero, decided to fight against the Papuan government. Ona had worked for the mining company and saw the damage the mine was causing.
In 1987, Ona and Serero gathered landowners around Panguna and formed the Panguna Landowners' Association. They demanded billions in compensation from the mining company for lost income and damages.
Uprising and Mine Closure
In November 1988, the Bougainville Revolutionary Army (BRA) attacked the mine. They stole explosives and caused a lot of damage, including blowing up power lines. These BRA forces were led by Sam Kauona, who had trained in Australia and left the Papuan defense forces to join Ona. Kauona became the spokesperson for the BRA. He continued to attack mine property and PNG government buildings. After attacks on mine employees, the company closed the mine on May 15, 1989. All remaining employees were removed by March 24, 1990.
The Papuan police and army tried to arrest Ona but couldn't catch him. The mining company denied responsibility for the problems Ona and his supporters raised. They suggested that the flying foxes died from a virus, not from the mine. The PNG government and the company offered a large compromise deal, but Ona and Kauona rejected it.
The Premier of Bougainville, Joseph Kabui, and Father John Momis, a member of parliament, supported Ona and Kauona. They demanded that the company recognize them as leaders. Both later became directly involved in the independence movement. Allegations of human rights abuses by the PNG army began to surface.
The BRA also used violence against the local government, including killing John Bika, a minister who supported the compromise. Because of the ongoing violence, the national government declared a state of emergency. Allegations of human rights abuses continued, and by late 1989, at least 1600 homes had been destroyed. The conflict showed no signs of ending, and in January 1990, the mining company announced the permanent closure of the Panguna mine.
In 1990, Papua New Guinea's Prime Minister Rabbie Namaliu agreed to pull out Papuan troops. The BRA's Sam Kauona signed the agreement. The police feared attacks and left, leaving the island under BRA control.
Civil War Begins
In May 1990, Papua New Guinea blocked supplies to Bougainville. Francis Ona responded by declaring independence for Bougainville. He set up the Bougainville Interim Government (BIG), but it had little real power. The island began to fall into chaos. The BRA's leaders often didn't have full control over all the groups claiming to be part of the BRA. Criminal gangs, some linked to the BRA and using old World War II weapons, terrorized villages, committing violence. Bougainville split into several groups, and a civil war began.
Much of the fighting was between different clans. The BIG/BRA was mainly from the Nasioi clan, which made other islanders suspicious. On Buka Island north of Bougainville, a local militia formed and, with the help of Papuan troops, drove out the BRA in September 1990. Several peace agreements were signed but were not kept by any side. Ona and Kauona, the BRA leaders, had disagreements with some political leaders like Kabui. Other village militias, armed by the PNG defense forces, also forced the BRA out of their areas.
Papua New Guinea's approach to Bougainville became tougher after a new prime minister, Paias Wingti, was elected in 1992. He angered people in the Solomon Islands with a raid on an island believed to be helping Bougainvilleans. In alliance with the local militias, the Papuan army took back Arawa, the provincial capital, in January 1993. Wingti later ordered the army to retake the Panguna mine, and they were initially successful. However, his government didn't last long. In August 1994, Sir Julius Chan became prime minister.
Chan wanted to find a peaceful solution. He met with Kauona and arranged a peace conference in Arawa for October. An Australia-led South Pacific Peacekeeping Force was supposed to provide security. However, the BIG leaders didn't attend, saying their safety couldn't be guaranteed. Chan's government then negotiated with a group of chiefs, leading to the creation of a Bougainville Transitional Government in April 1995. Theodore Miriung became its Prime Minister, but he often criticized abuses by Papuan soldiers.
By 1996, Chan was frustrated. After peace talks in Australia, a PNG patrol boat fired on Kabui and other delegates returning to Bougainville. The next month, the home of a BIG representative was firebombed. Chan decided to stop trying for peace. On March 21, 1996, he ordered an invasion of Bougainville.
Sandline and Ceasefire
After international pressure and human rights groups spoke out, Australia and New Zealand stopped giving military support. This forced Chan to look elsewhere. This led to the Sandline affair, where the Papua New Guinea government tried to hire mercenaries (soldiers for hire) from a company called Sandline International. These mercenaries were mostly former British and South African special forces. Even though negotiations with Sandline were not finished, Chan ordered the military to invade. In July, PNG forces tried to take Aropa airport, but the attack failed badly. In September, BRA fighters attacked a PNG army camp, killing 12 soldiers and taking five hostage. The next month, Theodore Miriung was killed. Although Chan's government blamed the BRA, an investigation suggested PNG defense force members were involved. The PNG military's morale was very low, and they couldn't get into the island's mountains to reopen the Panguna mine. Chan decided his best chance was with the Sandline mercenaries.
However, this plan also failed. News of hiring mercenaries was leaked to the Australian press, leading to international criticism. Also, the PNG army commander, Jerry Singirok, ordered the mercenaries to be detained when they arrived. This crisis forced Prime Minister Chan to resign, and Papua New Guinea almost had a military coup. The officers surrounded the parliament but refused to go further. In the end, Chan resigned, and the mercenaries were removed from Papua New Guinea.
The Sandline affair was a low point in the Bougainville war. Since 1997, a ceasefire has mostly held on the island. Breaking with Ona, Kauona and Kabui entered peace talks with the government of Bill Skate in New Zealand. This led to the signing of the Lincoln Agreement in January 1998. Under this agreement, PNG began to pull its soldiers out, and a multinational Peace Monitoring Group was sent in.
A Bougainville provincial government was set up in January 1999, with John Momis as Governor. However, this government faced opposition and was suspended. New arrangements were made for a modified government. Elections were held in May, and Kabui was named president. However, Momis and other leaders questioned this. In November, a new group, the Bougainville Interim Provincial Government, was established, led by Momis. Kauona and Momis later agreed to work together. A process of reconciliation began in the early 2000s.
Throughout this time, Ona refused to join the new government, declaring himself 'king' of Bougainville before he died of malaria in 2005. The Australian government has estimated that between 15,000 and 20,000 people died in the Bougainville Conflict. Other estimates put the number of combat deaths between 1,000 and 2,000.
Media Coverage of the Civil War
Some researchers have said that news coverage of the Bougainville conflict, especially by Australian media, often focused on Australia's own interests and didn't go into much detail. They also noted that while journalists did get into Bougainville, the coverage was uneven. Unless there was a major event like the Sandline crisis or a disaster, the media paid little attention to Papua New Guinea.
After the Conflict
Operation Bel Isi
The Peace Monitoring Group (PMG) was sent to Bougainville because of the civil unrest in the 1990s. The PNG government asked Australia and New Zealand to provide a group to watch over the ceasefire. This group included civilians and military personnel from Australia, New Zealand, Fiji, and Vanuatu. The PMG started on May 1, 1998, taking over from an earlier monitoring group.
The PMG had about 100 people. They were unarmed and wore bright yellow shirts and hats. They had no specific legal power but were neutral. At first, they mainly monitored the ceasefire and shared information about the peace process. After the Bougainville Peace Agreement, the PMG focused on helping with the weapons disposal program, working with a small UN Observer Mission. They also helped with writing the new constitution from 2003.
The group received support from naval ships at the Loloho wharf and weekly flights to the Kieta airfield. Four UH-1 'Huey' helicopters, painted bright red, were used to fly personnel to villages that were hard to reach. These helicopters flew over 8,000 safe hours in Bougainville. Later, commercial helicopters were used.
The PMG headquarters was in Arawa. Most personnel lived in local houses. A support team at the Loloho wharf provided services like food, medical care, and transport. Other PMG staff were located in different team sites across Bougainville, monitoring the peace and talking with local communities.
The Bougainville Peace Agreement said all personnel should leave by December 2002. However, the group stayed longer and fully left by August 23, 2003. Australia spent over $243 million on development and military help for Bougainville from 1997 to 2003. Over 3,500 Australian military personnel and 300 civilians served in the Peace Monitoring Group during Operation Bel Isi.
Self-Rule within Papua New Guinea
On August 30, 2001, a peace agreement was signed between the PNG government and Bougainville. This agreement created a self-governing (autonomous) government for Bougainville with its own constitution. It also gave Bougainville the right to hold a vote on independence in the future and included a plan for weapons disposal. Both sides largely followed the agreement. Bougainville's constitution was developed by 2004, setting up its government, including the President of the Autonomous Region of Bougainville, the Bougainville Executive Council, and the Bougainville House of Representatives.
The autonomous region elects a president and representatives to its House of Representatives. They also elect members to the National Parliament of Papua New Guinea. Elections have been held every five years since 2005. Joseph Kabui was elected president in 2005. After he died in 2008, James Tanis was elected. Tanis lost the 2010 election to John Momis, who was re-elected in 2015. Momis tried to extend his term, but this was rejected. Ishmael Toroama is the current president, having won the 2020 election.
Independence Vote
The 2001 peace agreement stated that a vote on independence for Bougainville would be held between 10 and 15 years after the autonomous government was formed, setting a deadline of 2020. The vote was held in November and December 2019. A huge majority, 98.31% of voters, chose independence, with a high turnout of 87.38%. No one challenged the results. This vote was not legally binding, meaning it didn't automatically make Bougainville independent. It was followed by discussions between the Bougainville and PNG governments. They agreed that Bougainville would become independent between 2025 and 2027. However, this still needs to be approved by the national parliament of Papua New Guinea, and the Papuan prime minister, James Marape, has not fully committed to Bougainville becoming separate. In March 2025, a forum in Bougainville suggested September 1, 2027, as the independence date.
More Information
- Wayne Coles-Janess VOD of Bougainville - "Our Island, Our Fight" 1998 available Globally on iTunes. This a link to iTunes UK. Available in most Countries.
- Wayne Coles-Janess. "Inside Bougainville" 1994 ABC ABC Foreign Correspondent Inside Bougainville.
- ABC Foreign Correspondent- World in Focus – Lead Story (1997) Exclusive interview with Francis Ona. Interviewed by Wayne Coles-Janess.
- ABC Foreign Correspondent- Lead Story – Bougainville (1997) by Wayne Coles-Janess.
- Regan, Anthony J. 2010, Light intervention: Lessons from Bougainville. United States Institutes of Peace.
- Regan, Anthony and Helga Griffin. 2005, Bougainville Before the Conflict. Canberra, Pandanus Books. ISBN: 9781740761994
- Robert Young Pelton. "The Hunter, the Hammer, and Heaven: Journeys to Three Worlds Gone Mad". 2002. Guilford, CT: The Lyons Press. ISBN: 978-1-58574-416-9.
- The Coconut Revolution (2000) directed by Dom Rotheroe includes a report and interview with Francis Ona and the B.R.A.
- Bougainville – Our Island Our Fight (1998) by the multi-award-winning director Wayne Coles-Janess. The first footage of the war from behind the blockade. The critically acclaimed and internationally award-winning documentary is shown around the world.
- Roderic Alley, "Ethnosecession in Papua New Guinea: The Bougainville Case," in Rajat Ganguly and Ian MacDuff, ed.s, Ethnic Conflict and Secessionism in South Asia and Southeast Asia: Causes, Dynamics, Solutions. 2003. New Delhi, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. ISBN: 81-7829-202-5, ISBN: 0-7619-9604-4.
- [1] The Bougainville conflict: A classic outcome of the resource-curse effect?, Michael Cornish
- [2] Chronology of Bougainville Civil War, By Michael J. Field, AFP, 30 January 1998
- Operation Bel Isi Website
