History of Bougainville facts for kids
Bougainville is a special region in Papua New Guinea (PNG). People have lived there for at least 29,000 years. Scientists found old tools in Kilu Cave on Buka Island. Bougainville is named after Bougainville Island, which is the biggest island in the Solomon Islands archipelago. Many smaller islands are also part of Bougainville.
The first people in Bougainville were related to Papuans and Aboriginal Australians. About 3,000 years ago, new people called Austronesians arrived. They brought farming and pottery. Today, people in Bougainville come from both groups. They speak both Austronesian and non-Austronesian languages.
In 1616, Dutch explorers Willem Schouten and Jacob Le Maire were the first Europeans to see the islands. A French admiral, Louis Antoine de Bougainville, reached the main island in 1768, and it was named after him. In 1886, the German Empire took control of Bougainville. The rest of the Solomon Islands became part of the British Empire. The borders we see today between Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands were set in 1899.
During World War I, Australia took control of German New Guinea, including Bougainville. After the war, Australia managed Bougainville for the League of Nations. In World War II, Japanese forces invaded Bougainville. Later, the Allies fought to take the islands back. Many people died, but Australia regained control in 1945.
In 1949, Bougainville became part of the Territory of Papua and New Guinea. A big copper mine, the Panguna mine, opened in 1969. This mine soon caused many problems. In 1975, a group in Bougainville tried to become independent, forming the Republic of the North Solomons. But Papua New Guinea quickly took back control. Tensions grew, leading to the Bougainville Civil War (1988–1998). Thousands died as the Bougainville Revolutionary Army fought for independence against the Papua New Guinea Defence Force. A peace deal was made in 2001. Bougainville became an autonomous region, meaning it could govern itself. It was also agreed that an independence vote would be held, which happened in 2019.
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Ancient History of Bougainville
The oldest known place where people lived in Bougainville is Kilu Cave on Buka Island. Scientists found proof that people were there between 28,700 and 20,100 years ago. Long ago, during the Ice Age, Bougainville Island was much bigger. It was one large landmass called "Greater Bougainville." The first people likely came from the Bismarck Archipelago to the north.
The first settlers were Melanesians, who are related to today's Papuans and Aboriginal Australians. About 3,000 years ago, a new group called Austronesian peoples arrived. They brought the Lapita culture with them. These new people were farmers. They also brought special pottery and animals like pigs, dogs, and chickens. When they arrived, some birds and native mammals disappeared. Today, people in Bougainville still speak both Austronesian and non-Austronesian languages. Over time, the different groups mixed a lot.
First European Visitors
Dutch explorers Willem Schouten and Jacob Le Maire were the first Europeans to see Bougainville in 1616. In 1643, another Dutch trip led by Abel Tasman met the islanders for the first time. No other Europeans visited until 1767. Then, British naval officer Philip Carteret explored and named the Carteret Islands. He was also the first European to see Buka Island. The next year, a Frenchman named Louis Antoine de Bougainville sailed along Bougainville Island's east coast. The island is now named after him. He also named Buka Island.
German Control
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In 1886, Germany and the United Kingdom agreed to divide the Solomon Islands. Bougainville and some other islands became a German "protectorate." This meant Germany protected and controlled them. The rest of the Solomon Islands became British. The current border between Bougainville and the country of Solomon Islands was set in 1899. Some northern islands went to the UK, and Germany got control of Western Samoa.
At first, German control did not change much for the economy. A few coconut plantations were started, but they did not make much money. The area was mainly used to find workers for other plantations in New Guinea. By 1905, there were no permanent trading posts run by non-natives. More businesses started in the 1910s. By 1913, many roads were built, and a hospital for locals was started.
World War I and Australian Rule
When World War I began, Australian forces took over Bougainville in December 1914. After the war, the Treaty of Versailles gave Australia the job of managing the former German territory for the League of Nations. Australia kept many of the German ways of doing things.
The Australian government tried to keep peace and order. This helped people who were looking for workers for plantations to enter new areas. In 1921, Bougainville had about 46,832 people. The Australian officer in charge was in Kieta. He had a police force of 40 local officers. The Australians also moved people from small villages into larger "line villages." This made it easier to collect taxes and get men to work on plantations.
A German researcher, Richard Thurnwald, visited Bougainville in 1933. He saw many changes since his last visit in 1908. More people could read and write. Money was now used, along with traditional shell money. The power of local chiefs had lessened. Headhunting had decreased, and feast-giving became a new way to show power instead of war.
In the 1920s, Protestant missionaries arrived in Bougainville. This caused some tension with the Catholic missionaries who were already there. Many researchers also came to study the people and cultures of Bougainville.
World War II
In 1942, Japanese forces took over Bougainville. They used it as a base to attack other Allied areas. In November 1943, American Marines landed on the west coast of Bougainville. A big naval battle, the Battle of Empress Augusta Bay, happened soon after. The Americans won and took control of the seas.
The Allies then started a land attack between November 1943 and April 1944. They took control of an area called "Torokina" on the western shore. The Americans built defenses and airfields there. The Japanese hid in the mountains and jungles. They launched a counterattack in 1944 at a place the Americans called "Hellsapoppin Ridge." The Americans fought back hard and defeated the main Japanese forces. The remaining Japanese soldiers retreated and were left to weaken. More than 17,500 Japanese soldiers died from fighting, disease, or hunger.
In April 1943, Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, a top Japanese commander, was killed over Bougainville Island. His plane was shot down by American fighter planes.
In 1945, the Australian Army took over from the Americans. Australia regained control of Bougainville and Papua New Guinea. The remaining Japanese soldiers on Bougainville refused to surrender until the end of the war on September 2, 1945. They were then sent back to Japan.
Start of the Independence Movement
Bougainville has a lot of copper and possibly gold. Mining this copper has caused many problems over the last 50 years. Local people tried twice to break away from Papua New Guinea because of the mining.
The Hahalis Welfare Society was started in 1959 by John Teosin and Francis Hagai. They protested against Australia's attempts to make people pay a head tax. In 1962, over 60 people were hurt in fights with the police.
In 1964, an Australian company, CRA Exploration, started looking for minerals in the Panguna area. The Panguna mine opened in 1969. It was run by their company, Bougainville Copper Ltd.
The first independence movement started in the late 1960s. People in Bougainville were unhappy with the Australian government. They felt they were not getting enough money from the mine on their land. An Australian minister was even accused of saying Bougainvilleans would "get nothing." The local people sued for more money. The court said the compensation was not enough under Australian law. But because Papua New Guinea was an "external territory," it did not have the same rules as mainland Australia.
In 1972, Australia gave Bougainville some self-rule, but this did not stop the desire for independence. A special committee was set up to talk with the Papua New Guinean government about Bougainville's future.
By 1974, they had almost reached a deal for more self-rule. But the Papua New Guinean government did not agree to share enough of the mine's profits with Bougainville. In May 1975, talks completely broke down.
The Republic of North Solomons
On May 28, 1975, Bougainville's government decided to break away from Papua New Guinea. This caused a big problem between the two governments. Papua New Guinea tried to fix it, but failed. Bougainville announced it would declare independence on September 1, before Papua New Guinea's own independence day. On September 1, they declared the 'Unilateral Declaration of Independence of the Republic of North Solomons'.
They tried to get other countries to recognize them through the United Nations, but it did not work. They also failed to join with the Solomon Islands. In early 1976, Bougainville realized it had to accept Papua New Guinea's rule.
Later that year, both sides signed the 'Bougainville Agreement'. This gave Bougainville self-rule within Papua New Guinea. Papua New Guinea promised full independence in five years, but this promise was not kept. For the next few years, relations were tense but mostly peaceful. In 1981, problems over the mine started again. This led to the conflict that became violent in 1988.
Conflict for Independence
Growing Problems
The Panguna mine and how its money was shared was the main problem between Bougainville and Papua New Guinea. The mine was the biggest source of money for Papua New Guinea from 1975 until it closed in 1989. The national government got 20% of the mine's profits. Bougainvilleans only got 0.5% to 1.25%.
The mine's money was very important for Papua New Guinea's economy. But the people of Bougainville felt they were not getting much benefit. They also saw the bad effects of the mine on their island's environment. They said the Jaba River was poisoned, causing birth defects and killing local animals. Critics also said the mining company created a system where white workers had better facilities than local workers.
The Uprising Begins
By late 1988, local leaders Francis Ona and Pepetua Serero decided to fight the Papua New Guinean government. Ona had worked for the mining company and saw the environmental damage.
In 1987, Ona and Serero formed the Panguna Landowners' Association. They demanded billions in payment from the mining company for lost money and damages. They wanted half of all the mine's profits since 1969.
Some reports later claimed that the Papua New Guinean government was told what to do by the mining company. However, the mining company denied starting the war.
The Fight Escalates
In November 1988, the Bougainville Revolutionary Army (BRA) attacked the mine. They stole explosives and caused damage. They cut off the mine's power by blowing up power lines. These BRA forces were led by Sam Kauona, who had trained in Australia and joined Ona. Kauona became the BRA's spokesperson. He continued to attack mine property and government places. The company closed the mine on May 15, 1989. All mine workers left by March 24, 1990.
The government declared a state of emergency. Reports of human rights abuses continued. By late 1989, at least 1,600 homes were destroyed. The conflict did not stop. In January 1990, the mining company announced the mine would stay closed.
In 1990, Papua New Guinea's Prime Minister agreed to pull out troops. He also agreed to have international observers watch the BRA give up their weapons. But the police feared attacks and left, leaving the island to the BRA. In Papua New Guinea's capital, there was an attempted military takeover, but it failed.
Civil War
In May 1990, Papua New Guinea blocked supplies to Bougainville. Francis Ona then declared independence for Bougainville. He set up the Bougainville Interim Government (BIG), but it had little power. The island fell into chaos. The BRA's leaders often did not have full control over all the groups claiming to be part of the BRA. Bougainville split into many groups, and a civil war began.
Much of the fighting was between different clans. The BIG/BRA was mostly from the Nasioi clan, which made other islanders suspicious. On Buka Island north of Bougainville, a local group formed and drove out the BRA with help from Papua New Guinean troops. Many agreements were signed, but none were fully kept. Some BRA leaders, like Ona and Kauona, disagreed with political leaders. Other village groups, called the resistance, were armed by Papua New Guinea and forced the BRA out of their areas.
Papua New Guinea's approach to Bougainville became tougher after the 1992 elections. The new Prime Minister, Paias Wingti, took a very firm stance. He angered people in the Solomon Islands with a raid on an island thought to be helping Bougainvilleans. With the help of the resistance, the Papua New Guinean army took back Arawa, the capital, in January 1993. Wingti tried to get a peacekeeping force from Pacific nations, but he stopped the idea himself. He then ordered the army to retake the Panguna mine, which they did at first. But his government did not last long. In August 1994, Sir Julius Chan became Prime Minister.
Chan wanted to find a peaceful solution. He met with Kauona and planned a peace meeting in Arawa. An Australia-led peacekeeping force would provide security. But the BIG leaders did not attend, saying they were not safe. Chan's government then talked with a group of chiefs. This led to the creation of a Bougainville Transitional Government in April 1995. Theodore Miriung became its Prime Minister. He often criticized abuses by Papua New Guinean soldiers.
By 1996, Chan was frustrated. After peace talks in Australia, a Papua New Guinean patrol boat fired on delegates returning to Bougainville. The home of a BIG representative was also firebombed. Chan decided to stop trying for peace. On March 21, 1996, he ordered an invasion of Bougainville.
Mercenaries and Ceasefire
After many calls from the United Nations and human rights groups, Australia and New Zealand stopped giving military support. This made Chan look for help elsewhere. This led to the Sandline affair. Papua New Guinea tried to hire mercenaries from a company called Sandline International. These were former British and South African special forces soldiers. News of this plan was leaked to the Australian media, causing international criticism.
When the Papua New Guinean military commander, Jerry Singirok, heard about it, he ordered the mercenaries to be arrested when they arrived. This caused a big crisis. Prime Minister Chan was forced to resign, and Papua New Guinea almost had a military takeover. The officers surrounded the parliament but did not go further. In the end, Chan resigned, and the mercenaries were removed from Papua New Guinea.
The Sandline affair was a low point in the war. Since 1997, a ceasefire has mostly held. Kauona and Kabui, breaking with Ona, started peace talks in Christchurch, New Zealand. This led to the Lincoln Agreement in January 1998. Under this agreement, Papua New Guinea began to pull its soldiers out. A multinational Peace Monitoring Group was sent to Bougainville.
A Bougainville provincial government was set up in January 1999, with John Momis as Governor. But this government faced opposition and was suspended. New arrangements were made for a different government. Elections were held in May, and Kabui was named president. However, Momis and others questioned if this was legal. In November, a new group, the Bougainville Interim Provincial Government, was set up, led by Momis. Kauona and Momis later agreed to work together. A process of reconciliation began in the early 2000s.
Throughout this time, Ona refused to join the new government. He declared himself 'king' of Bougainville before dying of malaria in 2005.
The Australian government believes between 15,000 and 20,000 people died in the Bougainville Conflict. Other estimates say 1,000 to 2,000 people died in combat.
After the Conflict
Operation Bel Isi
The Peace Monitoring Group (PMG) was sent to Bougainville because of the civil war in the 1990s. The Papua New Guinean government asked Australia and New Zealand to provide a group to watch over the ceasefire. This group included civilians and military personnel from Australia, New Zealand, Fiji, and Vanuatu. Major General Frank Hickling led the mission. The PMG started on May 1, 1998.
The PMG had about 100 people. They were unarmed and wore bright yellow shirts. They had no legal power but were there to help the peace process. At first, they watched the ceasefire and shared information about peace talks. After the Bougainville Peace Agreement, the PMG helped with the weapons disposal program. They also helped with writing the new constitution.
The group got supplies from the Loloho wharf and the Kieta airfield. Four UH-1 'Huey' helicopters were used to fly people to villages that were hard to reach. These helicopters were painted bright red. They flew over 8,000 safe hours in Bougainville.
The main PMG office was in Arawa. Most staff lived in local houses. A support team at the Loloho wharf provided food, medical care, and transport. Other PMG staff were in different places across Bougainville, watching the peace and talking with local communities.
The Bougainville Peace Agreement said all personnel should leave by December 2002. But the group stayed longer and left completely by August 23, 2003. Australia spent over $243 million on aid and military help for Bougainville during this time. Over 3,500 Australian military personnel and 300 Australian civilians served in the PMG.
Self-Rule within Papua New Guinea
On August 30, 2001, a peace agreement was signed. It said Bougainville would have its own self-governing government with its own constitution. It also said Bougainville could hold a vote on independence in the future. And it included a plan for getting rid of weapons from the conflict. Both sides largely kept the agreement. Bougainville's constitution was ready by 2004. Under this, the Bougainville Government was set up. This included a President of the Autonomous Region of Bougainville, a council, a House of Representatives, and courts.
The self-governing region elects a president and representatives. Elections have been held every five years since 2005. Kabui was elected president in 2005. He died in 2008, and James Tanis was elected to replace him. Tanis lost the 2010 election to John Momis, who was re-elected in 2015. Momis tried to stay president longer, but this was not allowed. Ishmael Toroama is the current president, elected in 2020.
Independence Vote
The 2001 peace agreement said Bougainville would have a vote on independence between 10 and 15 years after its government was formed. This meant the vote had to happen by 2020. The vote was held in November and December 2019. A huge 98.31% of voters chose independence, with a high turnout of 87.38%. No one argued about the results.
The vote was not legally binding. This means it did not automatically make Bougainville independent. After the vote, the Bougainville and Papua New Guinean governments talked about the next steps. They agreed that Bougainville would become independent between 2025 and 2027. However, this still needs to be approved by Papua New Guinea's national parliament. The current Prime Minister, James Marape, has not clearly said Bougainville will definitely become separate from PNG.
