The Troubles (1920–1922) facts for kids
The Troubles of the 1920s was a period of conflict in what is now Northern Ireland from June 1920 until June 1922, during and after the Irish War of Independence and the partition of Ireland. It was mainly a communal conflict between Protestant unionists, who wanted to remain part of the United Kingdom, and Catholic Irish nationalists, who backed Irish independence. During this period, more than 500 people were killed in Belfast and 23,000 people were made homeless in the city, while approximately 50,000 people fled the north of Ireland due to intimidation. Most of the victims were Catholics.
During the Irish War of Independence the Irish Republican Army (IRA) began attacking British forces and loyalists often attacked the Catholic community in retaliation. In July 1920, they drove 8,000 mostly Catholic workers out of the Belfast shipyards sparking sectarian violence in the city. That summer, violence also erupted in Derry, leaving twenty people dead, and there were mass burnings of Catholic property and expulsions of Catholics from their homes in Dromore, Lisburn and Banbridge
Conflict continued intermittently for two years, mostly in Belfast, which saw "savage and unprecedented" communal violence between Protestants and Catholics. Almost 1,000 homes and businesses were destroyed and thousands of people were forced out of mixed neighborhoods. The British Army was deployed and the Ulster Special Constabulary (USC) (or Specials) were formed to help the regular police – the Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC). The USC was almost wholly Protestant. Members of both police forces were involved in carrying out reprisal attacks on Catholics. The Irish Republic approved the 'Belfast Boycott' of unionist-owned businesses and banks in the city. It was enforced by the IRA, who halted trains and lorries and destroyed goods.
A ceasefire/truce began on 11 July 1921, ending the fighting in most of Ireland. It was preceded by Belfast's Bloody Sunday, a day of violence in which twenty people were killed. In early 1922, there was a resurgence of sectarian violence in Belfast, including the McMahon killings and the Arnon Street killings. In May 1922 the IRA launched their Northern Offensive. There were clashes near the new Irish border, at Clones and the Pettigo/Belleek area. Also in May 1922, the new government of Northern Ireland implemented the Special Powers Act (also known as the "Flogging Act"), interning suspected IRA members, and imposing a nighttime curfew across the six Counties. The outbreak of the Irish Civil War in the south on 28 June 1922 diverted the IRA from its campaign against the Northern government, and violence in Northern Ireland fell sharply.
Contents
- Background
- 1920 Belfast Shipyard Worker Clearances & "Pogroms"
- Belfast Boycott
- Banbridge & Dromore burnings
- Lisburn burnings
- Forming the Ulster Special Constabulary
- Spring and summer 1921
- Belfast's Bloody Sunday
- The Troubles in Ulster
- Anglo-Irish Treaty
- Early 1922
- Battle of Pettigo and Belleek
- Statistics
- Defining pogrom
- Later 'Troubles'
Background
In the early 20th century, all of Ireland was part of the United Kingdom. A majority of Ireland's people were Catholics and Irish nationalists who wanted either self-government ("home rule") or independence. However, in the north-east of Ireland, Protestants and Unionists were the majority, largely as a result of the 17th-century British colonization of the northern province of Ulster. Home Rule for Ireland had been an issue for many years – in 1886 the first Home Rule Bill was introduced in the British House of Parliament. Ulster Unionists resisted that Bill with violence – 31 to 50 people were killed in ongoing riots during June/July, 1886 (see the 1886 Belfast riots). The second Home Rule Bill was introduced in 1893, much violence ensued with Catholic workmen being driven from their jobs in the Belfast shipyards. In addition to the above riots many others occurred in Belfast during the 19th century - serious rioting took place in 1835 (two rioters shot dead), 1841, 1843, 1857, 1864, 1872, 1880,1884 and 1898.
Home rule for all of Ireland was set to take place with the Government of Ireland Act 1914 (Home Rule Act). During the Home Rule Crisis of 1912–14, Unionists threatened to oppose any Irish government with violence if necessary, forming a paramilitary group: the Ulster Volunteers or Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF) and arming themselves (see Larne gun-running). On 20 March 1914, the Curragh Mutiny occurred in which British Army officers vowed to resign or be dismissed if they were ordered to enforce the Home Rule Act. Ulster unionists argued that if Home Rule could not be stopped, then all or part of Ulster should be excluded from it (see Government of Ireland Act 1920). The Act divided Ireland along established county lines (see Partition of Ireland), creating two self-governing territories of the United Kingdom: Northern Ireland (with Belfast as its capital) and Southern Ireland (with Dublin as its capital). Six of the nine counties in the province of Ulster – Antrim, Down, Armagh, Londonderry, Tyrone and Fermanagh comprised the maximum area Unionists believed they could dominate. Generally, Irish nationalists opposed partition, in the 1918 Irish general election five of the nine Counties of Ulster returned Sinn Fein and Irish nationalist (Irish Parliamentary Party) majorities. Although Counties Fermanagh and Tyrone returns showed nationalist majorities, they were included into Northern Ireland.
By the end of the First World War (during which the 1916 Easter Rising had taken place), most Irish nationalists now wanted full independence rather than home rule. In the 1918 Irish general election, the Irish republican party Sinn Féin won the overwhelming majority of Irish seats. In line with its manifesto, Sinn Féin's elected members, boycotted the British parliament and founded a separate Irish parliament (Dáil Éireann), declaring the establishment of an independent Irish Republic covering the whole island. However, Unionists won most seats in Ulster and affirmed their continuing loyalty to the United Kingdom. Many Irish republicans blamed the British establishment for the sectarian divisions in Ireland, and believed that Ulster Unionist defiance would fade after British rule was ended. The British authorities outlawed the Dáil in September 1919, and a guerrilla conflict developed as the Irish Republican Army (1919–1922) began to attack British forces. This conflict became known as the Irish War of Independence.
Another contributing factor to the outbreak of communal violence was the severe economic recession that followed the end of World War I. Many workers were made redundant, working hours were reduced and many returning soldiers were unable to find work. Some returning Protestant soldiers felt bitterness against the many Catholics who had remained at home and now held jobs. At the same time, fiery political speeches were made by Unionist leaders and weapons were stockpiled by Ulster loyalists and Irish nationalists. Other events which contributed to the outbreak of violence were the assassinations of senior British Army officers, policemen and politicians: RIC Divisional Commissioner Lt Col Gerald Smyth (July 1920), RIC District Inspector Swanzy (August 1920), Belfast City Councilman William J. Twaddell (May 1922), and British Army Field Marshall Sir Henry Wilson (the Military Advisor to the Ulster Government). IRA Commandant Reginald Dunne was found guilty of Wilsons murder and executed on 10 August 1922.
In June 1920 the Ulster Unionist Council remobilized the UVF with one of the leading organizers being the future, long term Prime Minister of Northern Ireland, Basil Brooke (1943–1963). In 1920 the military Commander in Chief in Ireland (Nevil Macready) warned against a rearmed UVF that "would undoubtedly consist entirely of Protestants, and no amount of so called loyalty is likely to restrain them if the religious question becomes acute...the arming of the Protestant population of Ulster will mean the outbreak of civil war in this country, as distinct from the attempted suppression of rebellion with which we are engaged at present."The British Prime Minister, Lloyd George, had around the same time formed the Black and Tans and Auxiliary Division made up of returning soldiers to help bolster the RIC, but they quickly became notorious for their actions against nationalists.
1920 Belfast Shipyard Worker Clearances & "Pogroms"
The large-scale shipyard clearances of July 1920 were preceded by a similar actions in June 1898 and July, 1912. The 1898, 1912 and 1920 clearances were of Catholic shipyard workers and Protestant trade unionists, but the 1898 and 1912 clearances were on a smaller scale. In the 1898 "clearances", approximately 700 Catholic workers were driven from shipyards, linen mills and other businesses where Protestants were in the majority. The event that triggered the 1912 workplace expulsions took place far from Belfast in Castledawson, County Londonderry when a member of the Ancient Order of Hibernians snatched a British flag from the hands of a young boy – causing rioting. When the news spread to Belfast 2,400 Catholics and some 600 Protestant trade unionists were driven (often violently) from their places of work.
Belfast Pogrom
On The Twelfth (12 July) 1920 (a annual Ulster Protestant celebration), Ulster Unionist Party leader Edward Carson made a speech to thousands of Orangemen in Finaghy, near Belfast. He said "I am sick of words without actions" and he warned the British government that if it refused to adequately protect Unionists from the IRA, they would take matters into their own hands. He also linked Irish republicanism with socialism and the Catholic Church. Many Catholics asserted that Carson's rhetoric was partly responsible for the start of what they believed was a "pogrom" being carried out against Belfast's Catholic minority, referring to it as the Belfast Pogrom. At this time in Belfast, Catholics made up a quarter of the city's population but accounted for up two-thirds of those killed, they suffered 80% of the property destruction and comprised 80% of refugees. Despite the role played by state forces, particularly the USC, most unionist historians say the term "pogrom" is misleading, claiming the police violence was not co-ordinated.
On 21 July 1920, when shipyard workers returned after the Twelfth holidays, a meeting of "all Unionist and Protestant workers" was called during lunch hour that day by the Belfast Protestant Association at the Workman and Clarke yard. With over 5,000 workers present, speeches were made, demanding the expulsion of all "non-loyal" workers. Hours of intimidation and violence followed, in which Loyalists drove 8,000 co-workers from Harland and Wolff other shipyards, industrial sites and several linen mills. All of the removed workers were either Catholics or Protestant labour activists. Some of them were beaten, or thrown into the water and pelted with rivets as they swam for their lives. Three days of rioting followed, in which eleven Catholics and eight Protestants were killed and hundreds of people were wounded.
The expulsion of thousands of Catholic workers from the shipyards and other Belfast workplaces were followed by retaliatory attacks against Protestant workers as they were returning home, starting a cycle of communal violence which continued for over two years. One of the more brutal attacks on returning workers occurred on 22 November 1921 when bombs were thrown into a tram carrying workers from the Workman, Clark and Co. shipyard – three workers were killed and 16 wounded.
Around the Falls-Shankill interface, seven Catholics and two Protestants were killed, mostly by soldiers who were attempting to disperse rioters in the area. Several of those killed were ex-servicemen and one was a Redemptorist friar who was shot by a bullet fired from a passing military patrol through a Clonard Monastery window. A Loyalist mob attempted to burn down a Catholic convent on Newtownards Road; soldiers guarding the building responded opened fire, wounding 15 Protestants, three of them fatally.
At other workplaces in Belfast, expulsions continued for several days, and those expelled included several hundred female textile workers. Catholics and Socialists were driven out of other large firms such as Mackies Foundry and Sirocco Engineering Works. According to the Catholic Protection Committee, 11,000 Catholic shipyard, factory and mill workers had been expelled from their jobs, a tenth of Belfast's Catholic population. The leader of the Ulster Unionist Party and the soon to be Prime Minister of Northern Ireland, Sir James Craig, made his feelings on the expulsions clear when he visited the shipyards: "Do I approve of the actions you boys have taken in the past? I say yes".
The now unemployed Catholic shipyard workers continued to attack Protestants as they returned home after work. In late November 1921 multiple trams carrying shipyard workers were attacked, killing eight Protestant workers. Loyalist retaliation resulted in fifteen Nationalists killed in one day alone (22 November 1921). St. Matthew's church in the Catholic enclave of Ballymacarrett came under sustained attack and in March 1922, nearby St. Mathews Primary School was also subjected to a bombing attack.
Peace Lines
In the 1920's temporary Peace lines (walls) were built in the area adjacent to the Harland & Wolff shipyards in Belfast and made permanent in 1969, following the outbreak of the 1969 Northern Ireland riots. Today, the Ballymacarrett/Short Strand areas of Belfast remain basically segregated and violence still occurs. The Battle of St Matthew's or Battle of Short Strand was a gun battle that took place on the night of 27–28 June 1970 resulting in three deaths and at least 26 wounded. Major sectarian clashes were common in the shipyard area into the 21st century – 2002 Short Strand clashes and 2011 Northern Ireland riots.
Belfast Boycott
In response to the expulsions of Catholic workers and the violence in Belfast and other northern towns, northern Sinn Féin members called for the boycott of Unionist-owned businesses and banks in the city. Despite some opposition, the Dáil and its cabinet approved the boycott in August 1920, imposing a boycott of goods from Belfast and a withdrawal of funds from Belfast-based banks. In January 1921 the Dáil agreed to support the boycott more fully, providing 35,000 pounds to the campaign. Joseph MacDonagh (brother of executed 1916 Easter Rising leader Thomas MacDonagh) oversaw the implementation of the boycott, by May 1921 there were 360 Belfast Boycott committees throughout Ireland, but it was enforced intermittently.
The boycott was enforced by the IRA, who halted trains and lorries and destroyed goods from Belfast businesses. The female members of Cumann na mBan played major roles in holding up trains and the seizure/destruction of northern produced goods/Unionist leaning newspapers. Eithne Coyle held up several trains bound from County Tyrone to County Donegal. However, the boycott was effectively enforced only in County Monaghan, primarily due to its location near the newly-proclaimed border and Belfast. The following declaration was signed by all of Monaghan's Catholic commercial traders: "We the undersigned traders of Monaghan town, hereby pledge ourselves not to deal directly or indirectly with Belfast Unionist firms or traders until such time as adequate reparation has been made to the Catholic victims of the recent Belfast pogrom". The boycott had little impact on the north's three main industries – agriculture, shipbuilding and linen – as they were mainly shipped to markets outside Ireland. In March 1922, the Craig-Collins pact had both leaders agree that Craig would try to have Catholic workers regain the jobs lost in the shipyard clearances of 1920. Collins agreed to end IRA actions against the police and military in the six counties and to end the boycott. The Belfast Boycott eventually ended following the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty of December 1921 and the onset of the Irish Civil War (June 1922 – May 1923).
Banbridge & Dromore burnings
On 17 July 1920, the IRA assassinated British Colonel Gerald Smyth in Cork. He had told police officers to shoot civilians who did not immediately obey orders. Smyth was from a wealthy Protestant family in the northern town of Banbridge, County Down and his large funeral was held there on 21 July, the same day as the Belfast shipyard expulsions. After Smyth's funeral, about 3,000 Loyalists took to the streets. Many Catholic homes and businesses were attacked, burned and looted, despite police being present. A large mob of Loyalists, some armed, attacked and tried to break into the home of a republican family. The father fired on the crowd, killing a Protestant man. Hundreds of Catholic factory workers were also driven from their jobs, and many Catholic families fled Banbridge. Calm was restored after the British Army was deployed in the town.
On 23 July 1920, sectarian motivated riots occurred in Dromore, County Down. An estimated crowd of 500 attacked Catholic homes, the Catholic parochial house and looted businesses. During the rioting, one member of the Orange Order was shot dead, it was determined that the bullet had been fired by the police trying to disperse the mob. At the end of these two days of violence, virtually the entire Catholic population of both Banbridge and Dromore were forced to flee their homes. Sectarian intimidation and violence continued in Banbridge and areas north of the town (the Bann Valley) throughout August and September 1920 with approximately 1,000 more Catholics being expelled from their jobs.
Lisburn burnings
Sectarian attacks also occurred in Lisburn County Antrim (a town near Belfast) in response to the murder of Colonel Smyth. On 24 July 1920 rioters attacked Catholic owned businesses, homes and the Catholic convent of the Sacred Heart.
On 22 August 1920, the IRA assassinated RIC Inspector Oswald Swanzy in the Market Square of Lisburn, as worshippers left Sunday service. A coroner's inquest in Cork had held Swanzy (among others) responsible for the murder of Tomás Mac Curtain, Cork's Irish republican Lord Mayor. The commander of Belfast IRA 1st Battalion Joe McKelvey helped to organize the attack on Swanzy (the killers were IRA men from Cork).
Over the next three days and nights, in attacks likened to ethnic cleansing, Loyalist crowds looted and burned almost every Catholic business in the town, and attacked Catholic homes. There is evidence the UVF helped organise the burnings. Rioters attacked firemen who tried to save Catholic property, and attacked the lorries of British soldiers sent to help the police. A Catholic pub owner later died of gunshot wounds and a charred body was found in the ruins of a factory.
Lisburn was likened to "a bombarded town in France" during the First World War. A third of the town's Catholics (about 1,000 people) fled Lisburn. The attacks in Lisburn, Dromore and Banbridge led to a long-term decline of the Catholic populations of those towns. Damage in Lisburn was estimated at 810,000 pounds (in 1920 currency). Seven men were arrested and charged with rioting – five were convicted but appealed their convictions and were released.
Daily News correspondent Hugh Martin was quoted on the attacks in Lisburn and Banbridge: "This was no mere faction fight. There can be no doubt that it was a deliberate and organised attempt to, not by any means the first in history, to drive the Catholic Irish out of North-East Ulster."
During the last weekend of August 1920 sectarian violence was also widespread in nearby Belfast. The Belfast Telegraph newspaper reported 17 people dead and over 169 seriously wounded.
Forming the Ulster Special Constabulary
In September 1920, Unionist leader James Craig wrote to the British government demanding that a special constabulary be recruited from the ranks of the loyalist, paramilitary organization the UVF. He warned: "Loyalist leaders now feel the situation is so desperate that unless the Government will take immediate action, it may be advisable for them to see what steps can be taken towards a system of organized reprisals against the rebels". The Ulster Special Constabulary was formed in October 1920 and, in the words of historian Michael Hopkinson, "amounted to an officially approved UVF". Irish nationalists saw the founding of this almost wholly Protestant force as the arming of the majority against the Catholic minority. After the Truce between the IRA and the British (11 July 1921), the USC was demobilised by the British and the IRA was given official recognition while peace talks were ongoing. The USC consisted of 32,000 men divided into four sections: A Specials were fulltime and paid. B Specials were part time and unpaid and the C Specials were unpaid and nonuniform reservists. The USC or "Specials" were used in every decade of the 20th century up to its disbandment in May 1970.
Spring and summer 1921
After a lull, the conflict in the north intensified again in the spring of 1921. On 1 April, the IRA attacked an RIC barracks and a British Army post in Derry city with gunfire and grenades, killing two RIC officers. On 10 April, the IRA ambushed a group of Special Constables outside a church in Creggan, County Armagh, killing one and wounding others. In reprisal, the USC attacked nationalists and burned their houses in Killylea (where the dead Special Constables came from). On 10 June, the IRA shot three RIC officers on Belfast's Falls Road, fatally wounding Constable James Glover. He had been targeted because the IRA suspected him of being part of a group of police involved in the sectarian killings of Catholics. These attacks sparked violence by Loyalists. Belfast suffered three days of sectarian rioting and shooting incidents, during which at least 14 people were killed; including three Catholics taken from their homes and killed by uniformed police. About 150 Catholic families were forced out of their homes at that time.
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Partition of Ireland
The Government of Ireland Act came into force on 3 May 1921, thus partitioning Ireland under British law. Elections for the Northern and Southern parliaments were held on 24 May. Unionists won most of the seats in Northern Ireland, while republicans treated it as an election for the Dáil. The Northern Ireland parliament first met on 7 June and formed a devolved government, headed by Unionist Party leader James Craig. Irish nationalist and republican members refused to attend. The following day, the IRA ambushed a USC patrol at Carrogs, near Newry. In reprisal, the Special Constables went to the nearest Catholic home and fatally shot two civilian men. The IRA then fired on the USC men from a nearby hill, killing one.
Opening of the Northern Parliament
King George V addressed the ceremonial opening of the Northern Parliament on 22 June 1921. He called for "all Irishmen to pause, to stretch out the hand of forbearance and conciliation". The next day, a train carrying the king's military escort, the 10th Royal Hussars, was derailed by an IRA bomb at Adavoyle, County Armagh. Five soldiers and a train guard were killed in the derailment, as were fifty horses. Patrick McAteer, a local farm worker, was fatally wounded on the same day roughly half a mile from the ambush site by soldiers when he failed to halt when challenged. On 6 July, disguised Special Constables raided homes at Altnaveigh, County Armagh, and summarily killed four Catholic civilian men.
Belfast's Bloody Sunday
On 9 July 1921, a ceasefire (or truce) was agreed between representatives of the Irish Republic and the British government, to begin at noon on 11 July. Many Loyalists condemned the truce as a 'sell-out' to Republicans. While violence may have ceased in the south of Ireland, the birth of Northern Ireland in 1921 saw another wave of intense sectarian violence in Belfast. This period of time saw the highest number of casualties since the Shipyard Clearances of the previous summer.Hours before the ceasefire was to begin, police launched a raid against Republicans in west Belfast. The IRA ambushed them on Raglan Street, killing an officer and wounding others. This sparked a day of violence known as Belfast's Bloody Sunday. Protestant loyalists attacked Catholic neighbourhoods in west Belfast, burning over 150 Catholic homes and businesses. This led to sectarian clashes and gun battles between police and Catholic nationalists. While the IRA was involved in some of the fighting, another Irish nationalist group, the Hibernians were mainly involved on the Catholic side. The USC were alleged to have driven through Catholic enclaves firing indiscriminately. Twenty people were killed or fatally wounded (including twelve Catholics and six Protestants) before a truce began at noon on 11 July 1921. Almost 200 houses were badly damaged or destroyed, most of them being Catholic homes.
A strict curfew was enforced in Belfast after the violence. As soon as the ceasefire began, the Commandant of the IRA's 2nd Northern Division, Eoin O'Duffy, was sent to Belfast to liaise with the authorities and try to maintain the truce. With the tacit consent of the RIC, in order to restore order, he organized IRA patrols in Catholic neighborhoods, and announced that IRA offensive actions would end. Both Protestants and Catholics saw the truce as a victory for Republicans. Loyalists "were particularly appalled by the sight of policemen and soldiers meeting IRA officers on a semi-official basis".
The Troubles in Ulster
During this time period violence occurred in all nine counties of Ulster. Outside of the major cities/towns many attacks occurred in smaller/rural communities but were mostly limited to attacks on RIC barracks, ambushes, sniping and raids for weapons. Some large-scale attacks did occur often involving up to 200 IRA members. On 9 May 1920 approximately 200 IRA volunteers under Frank Aiken attacked the RIC barracks in Newtownhamilton, County Armagh. After a two-hour firefight, the IRA breached the barracks wall with explosives and stormed the building. Another large scale battle took place on 1 June 1920 when at least 200 IRA volunteers led by Roger McCorley attacked the RIC barracks in Crossgar, County Down. They opened fire on the building, wounding two officers, and attempted to breach the walls with explosives before withdrawing. In early 1921 western Donegal had seasoned Volunteers under the command of Peadar O'Donnell. During this time the west Donegal Flying Column was responsible for numerous successful attacks on RIC barracks and troop train ambushes. On 12 January 1921 the column attacked a train carrying troops with multiple military deaths reported.
Attacks and reprisals were common – on 25 October 1920 (after a successful raid for arms/ammunition took place at the RIC barracks in Tempo, County Fermanagh) a RIC officer was seriously wounded. Several hours later members of the UVF fired into a group of civilians in Tempo, killing one and wounding another. On 22 February 1921 in the small town of Mountcharles, County Donegal, the IRA attacked a mixed patrol of military and police, one RIC officer was killed and a soldier was wounded during a 30 minute exchange of gunfire. Later that day police and Black and Tans in Donegal town fired shots into buildings, destroyed shops and licensed premises. After midnight a mixed force of RIC, Black and Tans, USC and military returned to Mountcharles destroying businesses and setting fire to homes. That night one woman was shot and killed in Mountcharles. On March 22 1921, in retaliation for the burning of Catholic owned homes in Rosslea, County Fermanagh (21 February 1921) two members of the USC were shot dead. The IRA also conducted widespread attacks on Protestant owned homes in Rosslea, burning at least two to the ground and damaging many others. The following month, the IRA attacked the homes of up to sixteen Special Constables in the Rosslea district, killing three and wounding several others.
In Ulster during the spring of 1921, numerically superior British/Unionist forces faced a poorly armed IRA. The situation in County Tyrone at that time highlights the problems faced by the IRA when confronted with large numbers of military, police and Special Constabulary: "By the early spring of 1921 there were 3,515 A and 11,000 B Specials in the six county area. At the time of the truce there were about 14 reasonably active IRA companies in Tyrone, each with around 50 men, but only half a dozen in each company were armed. Therefore, just over 100 poorly armed Volunteers faced a combined force of almost 3,000 heavily armed, paramilitary police comprising RIC, A and B Specials." The British Army was also represented in Tyrone with a 650 man Rifle Brigade in Strabane. Some areas of Ulster saw little violence – only three IRA volunteers were killed in County Cavan during the war. For a more complete listing of the troubles in Ulster during this time period see Timeline of the Irish War of Independence.
Anglo-Irish Treaty
The post-ceasefire talks led to the Anglo-Irish Treaty, signed on 6 December 1921 by representatives of the British government and the Irish Republic. Under the Treaty, 'Southern Ireland' would leave the UK and become a self-governing dominion: the Irish Free State. Northern Ireland's parliament could vote it in or out of the Free State, and a Boundary Commission could then redraw or confirm the provisional border. The Dáil narrowly approved the Treaty on 7 January 1922 (by a vote of 64 to 57), but it caused a serious split in the Irish nationalist movement (eventually leading the Irish Civil War). The anti-Treaty side argued that the Treaty copper-fastened partition; the pro-Treaty side argued that the proposed Boundary Commission would transfer large swathes of Northern Ireland to the Free State, leaving the remaining territory too small to be viable. The pro-Treatyites formed a Provisional Government, headed by Michael Collins, to administer Southern Ireland until the Free State was established (6 December 1922).
Early 1922
The first half of 1922 saw clashes between the IRA and USC along the new border, an IRA offensive inside Northern Ireland, sectarian violence and killings in Belfast and tensions between the two new governments.
On 14 January, Northern Ireland police arrested members of the Monaghan Gaelic football team on their way to a match in Derry. Among them were IRA volunteers with plans to free IRA prisoners from Derry Gaol. In response, on the night of 7–8 February, IRA units crossed into Northern Ireland and captured almost fifty Special Constables and prominent Loyalists in counties Fermanagh and Tyrone. They were to be held as hostages for the Monaghan prisoners. Several IRA volunteers were also captured during the raids. The Northern Ireland authorities responded by sealing-off many cross-border roads.
On 11 February, the IRA stopped a group of armed Special Constables at Clones railway station, County Monaghan. The USC unit was travelling by train from Belfast to Enniskillen (both in Northern Ireland), but the Irish Provisional Government was unaware British forces would be crossing through its territory. The IRA called on the Special Constables to surrender for questioning, but one of them shot dead an IRA sergeant. This sparked a firefight in which four Special Constables were killed and several wounded. Five others were captured. The incident threatened to set off a major confrontation between North and South, and the British government temporarily suspended the withdrawal of British troops from the South. A Border Commission was set up to mediate in any future cross-border disputes, but achieved very little.
These incidents provoked retaliatory attacks by Loyalists against Catholics in Belfast, sparking further sectarian clashes. In the three days after the Clones incident, more than 30 people were killed in Belfast. On 14 February, Loyalists threw a bomb into a group of Catholic children playing on Weaver Street, Belfast. Two children were killed instantly and 22 suffered injuries "some of them horrific". On 18 March 1922, Northern Ireland police raided IRA headquarters in Belfast, seizing weapons and lists of IRA volunteers. The Irish Provisional Government condemned this as a breach of the truce. Over the next week, the IRA attacked several police barracks in the North. On 28 March, a column of fifty IRA volunteers crossed into the North and seized the RIC barracks in Belcoo, County Fermanagh, after a three-hour battle. Fifteen RIC officers were captured, marched across the border into the South and held captive until 18 July.
McMahon family and Arnon Street killings
One of the most infamous sectarian attacks in Belfast during this period were the McMahon killings (24 March 1922), in which five Catholic family members and an employee were shot dead by gunmen who broke into their home. The gunmen were allegedly Special Constables, and it was apparently revenge for the IRA's killing of two policemen hours earlier. A week later, six more Catholics were killed by Special Constables who went on a rampage in the Arnon Street killings (1 April 1922). This was also believed to have been revenge for the IRA's killing of a policeman.
Battle of Pettigo and Belleek
During the Northern Offensive, there were clashes between the IRA and British forces in an area known as the 'Belleek-Pettigo salient'. This was a triangular area of land in County Fermanagh, part of Northern Ireland but mostly cut-off from it by Lough Erne and the border. The villages of Belleek, County Fermanagh and Pettigo, County Donegal both straddle the border. The IRA garrisoned these villages and also occupied the triangular strip of Northern territory. On 27 May, 1922 a USC group was sent into the area by boat and garrisoned Magherameena Castle, near Belleek. The IRA attacked the USC, forcing them to abandon their position and withdraw to a nearby island. The IRA also ambushed a convoy of USC reinforcements, killing the lead driver and forcing the Specials to retreat.
James Craig, Prime Minister of Northern Ireland, telegrammed Winston Churchill, Secretary of State for the Colonies, to request that British troops be sent to drive out the IRA. Over the next week, a large number of Specials and British troops attempted to capture Pettigo from a force of about 100 IRA volunteers, by both land and water. British forces bombarded the village and then stormed it and captured Pettigo on 4 June. Three IRA volunteers manning machine-gun posts were killed by British shelling and gunfire; most of the other IRA volunteers retreated. Belleek was captured by British troops on 8 June after a brief battle. They bombarded the old Belleek Fort, forcing its IRA garrison to retreat. Newspaper reports put the IRA casualties at seven killed and the total death toll as high as 30. Although in Southern territory, British troops continued to occupy Pettigo until January 1923, and Belleek Fort until August 1924.
The fighting heightened tensions between the Irish and British governments. It was the first clash between the IRA and British troops since the truce, and was the nearest the Northern IRA came to a pitched battle with the British Army. It was also the last major conflict between the IRA and British forces during this period.
Statistics
Between 1920–1922, within Northern Ireland, 557 people were killed: 303 Catholics, 172 Protestants and 82 police and British Army personnel. A number of IRA volunteers were also killed. Belfast suffered the most casualties, as 455 people there were killed: 267 Catholics, 151 Protestants and 37 members of the security forces. The city had a higher per-capita death rate than any other part of Ireland during the Irish revolutionary period, with 40% of all conflict-related deaths.
Almost 1,000 homes and businesses in Belfast were destroyed, about 80% of them Catholic and 20% Protestant. More than 10,000 people became refugees, most of them Catholics who generally fled to other parts of Ireland. About 8,000 Catholics and 2,000 Protestants were forced to move within Belfast alone. An estimated 8,000–10,000 workers, mostly Catholics, were expelled from their jobs.
Catholic relief organizations estimated that 8,700 to 11,000 Catholics had lost their jobs, that up to 23,000 Catholics had been forced from their homes and about 500 Catholic-owned businesses had been destroyed between July 1920 and July 1922.
Outside of Belfast, at least 104 people were killed: 61 civilians (45 Catholics and 15 Protestants) and 45 policemen/soldiers.
While both communities suffered sectarian and politically-motivated violence during this time, Catholics were disproportionately affected. Catholics made up less than one-quarter of Belfast's population but almost two-thirds of the victims.
Defining pogrom
At the time, many Irish Catholics in Belfast felt that the Loyalist violence, and the violent expulsion of thousands of Catholics from mixed neighborhoods and workplaces, was akin to a pogrom or ethnic cleansing being waged against them. The American Commission on Conditions in Ireland's Interim Report 1921 stated "These riots between Protestants and Catholics in which Protestants were the aggressors partook of the character of Russian pogroms against the Jews". In one author's opinion, "The Catholic population had been beaten into submission".
Characterizing the violence as "pogroms" and "ethnic cleansing" has been fiercely debated by historians. Historians have argued that the term "pogrom" is not appropriate given the reciprocity of violence between the communities. In the context of the Belfast shipyard clearances, the use of the word "pogrom" does not strictly conform to dictionary definitions, which typically refers to pogroms against Jews in eastern Europe. Intimidation and retaliation attacks were carried out by both communities, with about third of those killed and over 20% of refugees being Protestant.
Later 'Troubles'
There would be no major outbreaks of violence until May 1935 when there were arson attacks on Catholic homes in Upper Library Street, Belfast. On 10 May 1935, a curfew was imposed on the area. At that time the Minister of Home Affairs (Northern Ireland) Dawson Bates banned all public meetings and demonstrations (the ban was lifted on 27 June). In June 1935 a crowd attacked the small Catholic enclave off Great Georges Street, Belfast. The IRA were based out of Lancaster street and provided a defense for the area under the command of Jimmy Steele (Irish republican). Attacks continued through the summer on Catholic homes in the areas of Lancaster and York Streets. By the end of the 1935 attacks and riots, thirteen people had been killed, hundreds had been wounded, mass expulsions of Catholics from shipyard jobs again occurred. The Catholic Relief Committee stated that mobs had evicted 431 families from their homes and dozens of houses were burned in the central part of Belfast. Over 2500 people had been driven from their homes with 85 percent being Catholic and 73 homes destroyed by arson. Many Catholics referred to these incidents as pogroms against them.
In The Troubles that began in 1969, some Belfast Catholics whose homes had been attacked when they were children found themselves being attacked again in what seemed a re-run of the troubles of 1920-1922. The Belfast shipyards had a long-standing reputation as Protestant "closed shops" – in 1970, 500 Catholic workers were expelled from their jobs.
