History of the Assyrians facts for kids

A giant lamassu from the palace of King Sargon II.

The history of the Assyrians is a very long story, stretching back almost 5,000 years! It covers the ancient civilization of Assyria in Mesopotamia, including its land, culture, and people. It also tells the story of the Assyrian people after their great empire fell in 609 BC, right up to today.

Historians often divide ancient Assyrian history into different periods:

• Early Assyrian Period (around 2600–2025 BC)
• Old Assyrian Period (around 2025–1364 BC)
• Middle Assyrian Empire (around 1363–912 BC)
• Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–609 BC)
• Post-Imperial Period (609 BC–around AD 240)
• Sasanian Era (AD 240–637)
• Post-Islamic Conquest Period (637 AD–present day)

Assyria got its name from the ancient city of Assur, which was founded around 2600 BC. For a long time, other powerful states in southern Mesopotamia controlled Assur. For example, it was part of the Akkadian Empire and later ruled by the Third Dynasty of Ur.

Assur became an independent city-state around 2025 BC under its own ruler, Puzur-Ashur I. His family continued to rule Assur, which grew into a regional power with trading posts in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey). This period is sometimes called the Old Assyrian Empire. After some time under Babylonian rule, Assyria became independent again. In the 15th century BC, it was briefly controlled by the Mitanni kingdom. But after wars between Mitanni and the Hittites, Assur broke free. Under Ashur-uballit I (around 1363–1328 BC), Assyria destroyed the Mitanni Empire and took over much of the Hittite lands. This marked the start of the powerful Middle Assyrian Empire.

Under strong kings like Adad-nirari I, Shalmaneser I, and Tukulti-Ninurta I in the 14th and 13th centuries BC, the Middle Assyrian Empire became one of the greatest powers in the ancient Near East. It even took over Babylonia for a while. After 1056 BC, Assyria went through a long period of decline. It became much smaller, mostly just its original homeland. However, the Assyrian army remained very strong. New kings in the 10th and 9th centuries BC helped Assyria grow again. Under Ashurnasirpal II in the early 9th century BC, Assyria (now the Neo-Assyrian Empire) became the most powerful force in the Near East once more.

Assyrian power reached its peak under Tiglath-Pileser III in the 8th century BC and the kings of the Sargonid dynasty. The Neo-Assyrian Empire stretched from Egypt in the south to the Caucasus mountains in the north, and from Persia in the east to Cyprus in the west. They recaptured Babylonia and fought campaigns in Anatolia and Armenia. The empire, and Assyria as a state, finally ended in the late 7th century BC. This happened after a long civil war weakened it, and then it was conquered by the Medes and Babylonians in 609 BC.

Even after the fall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, the Assyrian people survived in northern Mesopotamia and southeastern Anatolia. They kept their cultural traditions alive. Although their cities were badly damaged, the region was rebuilt under later empires like the Achaemenid Empire (Persian), Seleucid Empire, and Parthian Empire. Assur itself even thrived again as a semi-independent city. From the 1st century AD, Assyrians started becoming Christianized. However, some people still followed the old ancient Mesopotamian religion for many centuries.

Assyrians remained a large part of the population in northern Mesopotamia until massacres in the 14th century by the Ilkhanate and the Timurid Empire. These terrible events made Assyrians a smaller, local minority. The late 19th and early 20th centuries brought more persecution, especially the Sayfo (Assyrian genocide) by the Ottoman Empire in the 1910s. This killed about 250,000 Assyrians. Despite this, Assyrian culture grew stronger. The first Assyrian newspaper started in 1848, and the first Assyrian political party was founded in 1917. Many attempts for Assyrian self-rule or independence have been made, but most have failed. More massacres and persecution, even by groups like the Islamic State, have caused many Assyrians to live in other countries today.

Ancient Assyria: Early Beginnings (2600 BC–AD 240)

Early Assyrian Period: First Settlements (2600–2025 BC)

Statue of a ruler from Assur during the time of the Third Dynasty of Ur.

Farming villages existed in the Assyrian region as early as 6300 BC. While some nearby cities like Nineveh were settled even earlier, the first signs of the city of Assur date back to around 2600 BC. This was a time when the area was already quite developed with towns. It's possible Assur was founded even earlier, but later kings built so much that older remains were destroyed.

Early Assur was likely a religious and tribal center. It was a town of some size with important temples. Its location was very strategic, on a hill overlooking the Tigris river, protected by the river and a canal. The earliest known temples in Assur were for the goddess Ishtar. These temples show connections to Sumer in southern Mesopotamia, suggesting cultural mixing. The ancestors of the Assyrians, who spoke an East Semitic language, settled in Mesopotamia between 3500 and 3100 BC. The earliest known Assyrian king, Tudia, lived around 2450 BC.

For much of this early period, Assur was controlled by states from southern Mesopotamia. It was loosely connected to the Sumerian city of Kish. Later, it was conquered by the Akkadian Empire and then the Third Dynasty of Ur. The Akkadian Empire likely took over Assur under its first ruler, Sargon of Akkad (around 2334–2279 BC). Later Assyrian kings looked back at the Akkadian period as a golden age.

Assur was largely destroyed later, perhaps by the Lullubi people. But it was rebuilt and then conquered by the Sumerian Third Dynasty of Ur around 2100 BC. Under Ur, Assur was a smaller city-state with its own governors who paid tribute. This Sumerian control ended when the last king of Ur lost power. Assur then became an independent city-state around 2025 BC, starting with Puzur-Ashur I.

Old Assyrian Period: Trade and New Rulers (2025–1364 BC)

Royal seal of Erishum I (around 1974–1934 BC).

Puzur-Ashur I and the kings after him in the Puzur-Ashur dynasty did not call themselves "king." Instead, they used the title Išši'ak ("governor"). This showed that the real king of the city was the Assyrian god Ashur, and the human ruler was just his representative. The god Ashur likely became important during this early period as a symbol of the city itself.

During this dynasty, Assur had fewer than 10,000 people. Its military power was probably limited to the local area. The earliest known writing by an Assyrian king was by Puzur-Ashur I's son, Shalim-ahum. He wrote that he built a temple for Ashur "for his own life and the life of his city." The fourth king, Erishum I (around 1974–1934 BC), was the first whose reign length is recorded in the Assyrian King List. Erishum was known for trying out free trade. He let his people handle most of the trade and foreign business. Private bankers provided the money and took the risks, but also earned most of the profits. The king collected tolls, and this money was used to expand Assur. Thanks to Erishum, Assur quickly became a major trading state in northern Mesopotamia and Anatolia.

Ruins of the Old Assyrian trading colony at Kültepe.

An extensive Assyrian trade network quickly developed. Many Old Assyrian clay tablets have been found in trading colonies. The most famous site is Kültepe in Turkey, where over 22,000 Assyrian tablets were found. Assur managed to stay central to this trade network even though it was small and had no known military conquests at first. Assur's importance as a trading center declined in the 19th century BC, possibly due to more conflicts between states.

Around 1808 BC, the city-state of Assur was conquered by Shamshi-Adad I, an Amorite ruler from Ekallatum. He removed the last king of the Puzur-Ashur dynasty.

Incomplete royal seal of Shamshi-Adad I (around 1808–1776 BC).

Shamshi-Adad's conquests made him ruler of the entire northern Mesopotamia. He set up his capital at Shubat-Enlil. Around 1785 BC, he put his two sons in charge of different parts of his kingdom. Even though the people of Assur saw Shamshi-Adad as a foreign conqueror, he respected the city. He rebuilt the temple of Ashur and added a sanctuary for Enlil, the head of the Mesopotamian gods. Shamshi-Adad might have tried to make people believe that Ashur and Enlil were the same god. This idea was very important later, as Assyrians gave Ashur the role of "king of the gods."

Shamshi-Adad's kingdom was surrounded by other powerful states. When he died around 1776 BC, his kingdom collapsed. His son, Ishme-Dagan I, only kept control of Ekallatum and Assur.

The time between Shamshi-Adad's kingdom falling and the rise of the Middle Assyrian Empire (14th century BC) is often called an Assyrian "Dark Age." There isn't much historical evidence from this time. Northern Mesopotamia was very unstable, with power changing hands often. Around 1761 BC, Assur briefly fell under the control of the Old Babylonian Empire under Hammurabi. Eventually, Assur became an independent city-state again. There was also fighting within Assur itself between Shamshi-Adad's family and native Assyrians. The Assyrian ruler Puzur-Sin finally brought back native rule. After more struggles, Bel-bani came to power around 1700 BC. He founded the Adaside dynasty, which ruled Assyria for about 1,000 years.

A major event for Assyria was the invasion of southern Mesopotamia by the Hittites around 1595 BC. This destroyed the Old Babylonian Empire, creating a power vacuum. This led to the rise of the Kassites in Babylonia and the Hurrian Mitanni state north of Assyria. Assyrian rulers from 1520 to 1430 BC became more assertive. Puzur-Ashur III (around 1521–1498 BC) was the first Assyrian king mentioned in the Synchronistic History, a text about border disputes with Babylonia. This suggests Assyria was starting to interact with Babylonia. Around 1430 BC, Assur was taken over by Mitanni and became a vassal state for about 70 years. Assur still had some freedom under Mitanni. Another Hittite invasion, by Šuppiluliuma I in the early 14th century BC, weakened Mitanni. Assyria then broke free and became independent again. Under Ashur-uballit I (around 1363–1328 BC), Assyria grew stronger, conquering Mitanni and Babylonian lands. This marks the start of the Middle Assyrian period.

Middle Assyrian Period: A Great Power (1363–912 BC)

Rise of Assyria: Becoming a Kingdom

Approximate map of the Middle Assyrian Empire at its height in the 13th century BC.

Ashur-uballit I was the first native Assyrian ruler to call himself šar ("king"). He also claimed to be a great king, like the Egyptian pharaohs and the Hittite kings. This meant he was expected to expand his kingdom. Later Assyrians often saw Ashur-uballit's reign as the true beginning of Assyria. The term "land of Ashur" (meaning Assyria as a larger kingdom) was first used during his time.

Assyria's rise was linked to the fall of the Mitanni kingdom, its former ruler. This allowed early Middle Assyrian kings to expand their lands in northern Mesopotamia. Ashur-uballit mainly fought against smaller states near the Assyrian homeland. He also had diplomatic ties with Babylonia and Egypt. His successors, Enlil-nirari and Arik-den-ili, were less successful, and the new empire remained somewhat fragile. Enlil-nirari's reign started the long rivalry between Assyria and Babylonia.

Under warrior-kings like Adad-nirari I (around 1305–1274 BC), Shalmaneser I (around 1273–1244 BC), and Tukulti-Ninurta I (around 1243–1207 BC), Assyria truly became a major regional power. Adad-nirari was the first Assyrian king to fight against the remaining Mitanni kingdom. He defeated Shattuara I of Mitanni and made him a vassal. After a revolt, Adad-nirari took over more Mitanni lands. He also fought Babylonia, defeating King Nazi-Maruttash and moving the border in Assyria's favor.

Tukulti-Ninurta I (around 1243–1207 BC), shown standing and kneeling.

Assyrian campaigns grew stronger under Shalmaneser I. He fought important wars to the west and north. When the Mitanni king Shattuara II rebelled, Shalmaneser crushed the revolt. The Mitanni capital was sacked, and their lands became part of the Assyrian Empire. Shalmaneser's reign also saw worse relations with the Hittites, who had supported Mitanni.

Conflict with the Hittites continued under Shalmaneser's son, Tukulti-Ninurta I. Assyria won a major battle around 1237 BC, which marked the end of Hittite power in northern Mesopotamia. Tukulti-Ninurta's conquests brought the Middle Assyrian Empire to its largest size. He was also the first Assyrian king to move the capital away from Assur. In 1233 BC, he created a new capital city called Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta. However, this city was only the capital during his reign; later kings returned to Assur.

Tukulti-Ninurta's main goal was Babylonia. He started a conflict with the Babylonian king Kashtiliash IV. He invaded Babylonia and conquered it around 1225 BC. He was the first Assyrian king to use the southern Mesopotamian title "king of Sumer and Akkad." He was also the first native Mesopotamian to be crowned king of Babylon. Assyrian control over Babylonia was indirect, using vassal kings. After a Babylonian uprising, Tukulti-Ninurta added the title "sun[god] of all people" to his name, which was unusual as Assyrian kings were usually seen as representatives of a god, not divine themselves. Eventually, Babylonia broke free. An uprising led by Adad-shuma-usur drove the Assyrians out around 1216 BC. The loss of Babylonia increased unhappiness with Tukulti-Ninurta. His long reign ended with his assassination, which led to internal conflicts and a big drop in Assyrian power.

Troubles and Decline: A Difficult Time

Map of the Middle Assyrian Empire under Ashur-resh-ishi I (1132–1115 BC).

Tukulti-Ninurta's successors could not keep Assyrian power strong. The empire became smaller, mostly just the Assyrian homeland. This decline happened during the Late Bronze Age collapse, a time when the ancient Near East saw huge changes. The Hittite Empire and the Kassite dynasty of Babylon fell, and Egypt became much weaker. Historians think this collapse was caused by large migrations, invasions by the mysterious Sea Peoples, new warfare technology, starvation, diseases, and climate change.

Tukulti-Ninurta's direct family line ended around 1192 BC when Ninurta-apal-Ekur, a descendant of Adad-nirari I, took the throne. He and his successors could not stop the empire's decline.

Ninurta-apal-Ekur's son, Ashur-dan I (around 1178–1133 BC), improved things a bit, fighting against the Babylonian king. But his two sons fought for power after his death. Ashur-resh-ishi I (1132–1115 BC) was seen as a savior of the Assyrian Empire. He defeated the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar I in several battles. He even called himself "avenger of Assyria."

Because of Ashur-resh-ishi's victories, his son Tiglath-Pileser I (1114–1076 BC) could focus on other lands. He ruled with great confidence, using titles like "unrivalled king of the universe." Tiglath-Pileser led major campaigns to the west and north, taking back lost lands and conquering new ones. He also made the Assyrian cavalry larger and used war chariots more often. Although he was very successful, some of his conquests did not last long. Assyria became too spread out, and later kings had to play defense.

A growing problem from the late reign of Ashur-bel-kala onwards were the Arameans in the west. They avoided big battles, instead attacking Assyrians in many small fights. This made it hard for the Assyrian army to use its strength.

Middle Assyrian cylinder seal showing a winged horse.

From the time of Eriba-Adad II (1056–1054 BC), kings could not keep up the achievements of their predecessors. This period of decline continued until the mid-10th century BC. The Arameans were Assyria's main enemies, sometimes raiding deep into the Assyrian homeland. Their attacks were uncoordinated, so even when Assyrians defeated some groups, the Arameans' guerrilla tactics prevented lasting victory.

Despite losing control over most of the Middle Assyrian Empire, the Assyrian homeland remained safe. It was protected by its remote location and the army's strength. Other kingdoms were also fragmented, which later made them easy for the Assyrian army to conquer. Ashur-dan II (934–912 BC) reversed Assyrian decline. He campaigned in the areas around the Assyrian homeland. His campaigns prepared the way for bigger efforts to restore Assyrian power under his successors. His reign marks the start of the Neo-Assyrian period.

Neo-Assyrian Period: The Great Empire (911–609 BC)

Revitalization and Expansion: Assyria Dominates

Assyrian borders and campaigns from Ashur-dan II (934–912 BC) to Shalmaneser III (859–824 BC).

Over decades of military conquests, the early Neo-Assyrian kings worked to retake their empire's former lands. They wanted to restore Assyria's position to its height during the Middle Assyrian Empire. The reigns of Adad-nirari II (911–891 BC) and Tukulti-Ninurta II (890–884 BC) saw the slow start of this project. It was an amazing achievement, as they had to start almost from scratch. Adad-nirari's most important conquest was taking back the city of Arrapha (modern-day Kirkuk). This city later became a starting point for many Assyrian campaigns to the east. Adad-nirari also made a border agreement with the Babylonian king, showing Assyrian power was growing. The second and bigger phase of Neo-Assyrian expansion began under Tukulti-Ninurta's son, Ashurnasirpal II (883–859 BC). His conquests made the Neo-Assyrian Empire the most powerful political force in the Near East.

One of Ashurnasirpal's toughest enemies was the Aramean king Ahuni. It took years of war for Ahuni to finally accept Ashurnasirpal as his ruler. Ahuni's defeat was very important because it allowed Assyrian forces to campaign west of the Euphrates river for the first time in two centuries. Ashurnasirpal took this chance and marched to the Mediterranean Sea, collecting tribute from various kingdoms along the way. A big change during Ashurnasirpal's reign was moving the Assyrian capital away from Assur again. He rebuilt the ancient city of Kalhu (also known as Nimrud) and made it the new capital in 879 BC. He used thousands of workers to build new forts, palaces, and temples. Even though Assur was no longer the political capital, it remained Assyria's ceremonial and religious center.

Shalmaneser III receiving tribute from "Jehu of the people of the land of Omri" (King Jehu of Israel), shown on the Black Obelisk around 840 BC.

The reign of Ashurnasirpal's son, Shalmaneser III (859–824 BC), also saw a lot of Assyrian territory gained. Lands conquered by Ashurnasirpal were strengthened and divided into new provinces. Shalmaneser's campaigns were even more widespread. Assyria's most powerful enemy at this time was the kingdom of Urartu in the north. Urartu's government, culture, writing, and religion were very similar to Assyria's. Both states wanted to expand, which often led to battles. Shalmaneser weakened Urartu after a campaign in 856 BC, where he sacked their capital.

In 853 BC, Shalmaneser had to fight a large group of western states in Syria, led by the Aramean king Hadadezer. The battle was not decisive. After this, Shalmaneser focused on the south. He allied with the Babylonian king and helped him defeat a rebel and fight against the migrating Chaldeans. After Hadadezer died in 841 BC, Shalmaneser took over more western lands. By the 830s, his armies reached into Anatolia, reaching some of the westernmost places ever seen by Assyrian forces. Although successful, Shalmaneser's conquests were very fast and not fully secured by the time he died.

From the late reign of Shalmaneser III, the Neo-Assyrian Empire entered a period where powerful officials and generals held more political power than the king. Shalmaneser's last campaigns were led by his commander-in-chief, not the king himself. Shalmaneser's final years were troubled by a civil war when one of his sons rebelled to take the throne. When Shalmaneser died in 824 BC, the rebellion was still ongoing. His son Shamshi-Adad V eventually won, possibly with help from the Babylonian king. This period is often seen as a time of decline, with less expansion and weaker central power. However, there were still successes. In 812 BC, Shamshi-Adad temporarily conquered large parts of Babylonia. His son, Adad-nirari III (811–783 BC), also led campaigns that gained new territory. But the lowest point of this period was under Adad-nirari's sons, where officials became even more powerful and sometimes didn't even credit the kings for their achievements.

Partial relief showing Tiglath-Pileser III (745–727 BC).

Ashur-nirari V was followed by Tiglath-Pileser III (745–727 BC), likely his brother, who probably took the throne by force. Tiglath-Pileser's rule started a new era for the Neo-Assyrian Empire. While earlier kings had impressive conquests, Tiglath-Pileser truly began Assyria's "imperial" phase. He aimed for full conquest, not just seasonal tribute. He also reformed the army and centralized the government. Tiglath-Pileser is the earliest Assyrian king mentioned in the Babylonian Chronicles and the Hebrew Bible, giving us outside views of his reign.

Early on, Tiglath-Pileser reduced the power of the officials. He campaigned in all directions with great success. His most impressive achievements were conquering and making all of the Levant (to the Egyptian border) into vassal states. He also dominated the Persians and Medes to the east, and the Arabs south of Babylonia. In 729 BC, he conquered Babylonia. After this, he and later Assyrian kings often ruled as both "king of Assyria" and "king of Babylon." By his death in 727 BC, Tiglath-Pileser had more than doubled the empire's territory. His policy of direct rule, rather than through vassal states, changed the Assyrian state and its economy. The empire relied more on taxes from provincial governors, which reduced the need for military action. Tiglath-Pileser also moved tens, if not hundreds, of thousands of foreigners to the Assyrian homeland and other provinces.

Sargonid Dynasty: Peak and Fall

Sargon II
(722–705 BC)

Sennacherib
(705–681 BC)

Esarhaddon
(681–669 BC)

Ashurbanipal
(669–631 BC)

Tiglath-Pileser's son, Shalmaneser V (727–722 BC), was overthrown after a short reign by Sargon II (722–705 BC). Sargon founded the Sargonid dynasty, which would rule until the empire fell. Sargon's rise to power caused a lot of internal unrest. He claimed to have deported 6,300 "guilty Assyrians" who opposed him. Several parts of the empire also rebelled. The most important revolt was by the Chaldean warlord Marduk-apla-iddina II, who took control of Babylon and allied with the Elamite king.

After gaining a lot of silver from the city of Carchemish in 717 BC, Sargon began building another new imperial capital. The new city was named Dur-Sharrukin ("Fort Sargon"). Unlike earlier kings, Sargon built this city from scratch. Sargon was very successful in war and often went on campaigns. Between 716 and 713 BC, he fought against Urartu, the Medes, Arab tribes, and Greek pirates. In 710 BC, Sargon retook Babylon, forcing Marduk-apla-iddina to flee. Sargon lived in Babylon for a few years, taking part in local traditions. In 706 BC, Dur-Sharrukin was officially made the new capital. However, Sargon did not enjoy his new city for long. In 705 BC, he died in battle in Anatolia during his last campaign.

19th-century reconstruction of Nineveh, made capital under Sennacherib.

Sargon's son, Sennacherib (705–681 BC), moved the capital to Nineveh, which he greatly rebuilt. Sargon's death in battle had religious meaning, and some conquered regions rebelled again. The vassal states in the Levant stopped paying tribute, and Marduk-apla-iddina retook Babylon with help from the Elamites. It took Sennacherib several years to defeat all his enemies. By late 704 BC, Sennacherib retook Babylonia, but Marduk-apla-iddina escaped. A Babylonian noble, Bel-ibni, was made vassal ruler of Babylon. In 701 BC, Sennacherib invaded the Levant, his most famous campaign.

Bel-ibni's rule in Babylon did not last long. He was constantly opposed by Marduk-apla-iddina and another Chaldean warlord. In 700 BC, Sennacherib invaded Babylonia again and drove them away. He then placed his eldest son, Ashur-nadin-shumi, on the Babylonian throne.

In 694 BC, Sennacherib invaded Elam to get rid of Marduk-apla-iddina. He sailed across the Persian Gulf with a fleet built by Phoenician and Greek shipbuilders. He captured and sacked many Elamite cities. However, Marduk-apla-iddina died naturally before the Assyrian army landed. This campaign greatly increased the conflict with Babylon and Elam. The Elamite king then attacked Babylonia while the Assyrians were away. He captured Ashur-nadin-shumi, who was likely executed. In his place, the Elamites and Babylonians crowned Nergal-ushezib as king of Babylon. Sennacherib defeated Nergal-ushezib a few months later. But another warlord seized Babylon in late 693 BC. In 689 BC, Sennacherib defeated him and almost completely destroyed Babylon. Sennacherib's reign ended in 684 BC when he was murdered by his eldest surviving son, Arda-Mulissu. This happened because Sennacherib had chosen his younger son, Esarhaddon (681–669 BC), as his heir. Esarhaddon defeated Arda-Mulissu in a civil war and became king.

Map of the Neo-Assyrian Empire at its greatest extent, under Esarhaddon.

Esarhaddon was very troubled and distrusted his officials and family because of his difficult path to the throne. His paranoia led to royal women gaining more power. His mother, queen, and daughter were all more influential than most women in earlier Assyrian history. Despite his paranoia, illness, and depression, Esarhaddon was one of Assyria's most successful kings. He rebuilt Babylon and led many successful military campaigns. Many of his campaigns were further from the Assyrian homeland than any previous king's. His greatest military achievement was the 671 BC conquest of Egypt. This not only brought a land of great cultural importance under his rule but also made the Assyrian Empire its largest ever.

Despite his successes, Esarhaddon faced many plots against him. He used a network of spies to uncover these attempts. In 670 BC, he had many high-ranking officials executed. In 672 BC, Esarhaddon declared that his younger son, Ashurbanipal (669–631 BC), would succeed him in Assyria. His older son, Shamash-shum-ukin, would rule Babylon. To ensure a smooth succession, Esarhaddon made everyone in the empire, including officials and vassal rulers, swear oaths of loyalty to his chosen successors.

Ashurbanipal is often considered the last great king of Assyria. His reign saw the last time Assyrian troops marched in all directions of the Near East. One issue in Ashurbanipal's early reign was disagreements with his brother, Shamash-shum-ukin. It seems Shamash-shum-ukin only controlled the area around Babylon, while other Babylonian cities saw Ashurbanipal as their king. Shamash-shum-ukin grew to resent his brother's control and rebelled in 652 BC, aided by Elamite kings. Ashurbanipal defeated his brother in 648 BC. Shamash-shum-ukin may have died by setting himself on fire in his palace. A puppet ruler replaced him in Babylon. After his victory, Ashurbanipal marched on Elam. The Elamite capital was captured and destroyed, and many Elamite prisoners were brought to Nineveh and humiliated.

Fall of Nineveh (1829) by John Martin.

Although Ashurbanipal's writings show Assyria as a strong and divinely supported empire, problems were starting to appear during his reign. After 656 BC, the empire lost control of Egypt. Ashurbanipal also led many campaigns against Arab tribes, which wasted Assyrian resources and failed to secure their lands. Most importantly, his destruction of Babylon after defeating his brother fueled anti-Assyrian feelings in southern Mesopotamia. This would have terrible consequences after his death. Ashurbanipal's reign also saw a growing disconnect between the king and the traditional elite. Eunuchs became very powerful, gaining large lands and tax exemptions.

After Ashurbanipal's death in 631 BC, the Neo-Assyrian Empire quickly collapsed. His son, Ashur-etil-ilani, ruled briefly before another son, Sinsharishkun, became king in 627 BC. In 626 BC, Babylonia revolted again, led by Nabopolassar. While Nabopolassar was more successful than previous rebels, he likely wouldn't have won if the Medes under Cyaxares hadn't joined the conflict in 615/614 BC. In 614 BC, the Medes and Babylonians sacked and destroyed Assur. In 612 BC, they captured and plundered Nineveh, with Sinsharishkun dying defending the capital. A prince, Ashur-uballit II, tried to lead resistance from Harran in the west, but he was defeated in 609 BC. This marked the end of the ancient line of Assyrian kings and of Assyria as a state.

Post-Imperial Period: Survival and Revival (609 BC–AD 240)

An Assyrian soldier on the tomb of the Achaemenid king Xerxes I.

The fall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire had huge effects on the ancient Near East. Babylonia, now the center of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, became very prosperous. Trade routes changed, and the region's economy and power were restructured. Archaeological studies show that the size and number of inhabited sites in Assyria dramatically decreased during the Neo-Babylonian period. This suggests a major breakdown in society. Former Assyrian capital cities like Assur, Nimrud, and Nineveh were almost completely abandoned at first.

This breakdown doesn't mean a huge drop in population. The region became less wealthy and less densely populated, but it wasn't empty or truly poor. Many remaining Assyrians might have become nomads because their settlements and economy collapsed. During the Neo-Babylonian and later Achaemenid Empire (Persian) periods, Assyria was a less important and sparsely populated region. This was probably because the Neo-Babylonian kings didn't invest much in its development. Assyrians are found in other Babylonian cities during this time. By the end of the 6th century BC, the Assyrian dialect of the Akkadian language died out. It had already been largely replaced by Aramaic as the common language.

After the Achaemenid conquest of Babylon in 539 BC, Assyria became part of the Achaemenid Empire, organized as the province of Athura. Some former Assyrian land was also part of Media. Although Assyrians revolted unsuccessfully against the Achaemenid king Darius the Great in 520 BC, relations were generally peaceful. The Achaemenid kings didn't interfere much with their provinces as long as they paid tribute. This allowed Assyrian culture to survive under Persian rule. After the Achaemenid conquest, the remaining people of Assur were allowed to rebuild the ancient temple of Ashur. The Persian king even returned Ashur's cult statue from Babylon. Organizing Assyria into the single province of Athura kept the region on the map as a distinct political area.

After Alexander the Great conquered the Achaemenid Empire in 330 BC, Assyria came under the control of the Seleucid Empire. Even though Assyria was centrally located in this empire, it's rarely mentioned in texts from this period. This might be because the main centers of the Seleucid Empire were in the south and west. However, there were important developments in Assyria. Archaeological finds show that cities like Assur, Nimrud, and Nineveh were resettled under the Seleucids, along with many villages.

Detail of a stele from Assur (2nd century AD) showing a local ruler.

The most important period for ancient Assyria after the fall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire was after the region was conquered by the Parthian Empire in the 2nd century BC. Under Parthian rule, Assyria's slow recovery continued. This led to a great return to prosperity between the 1st and 3rd centuries AD. The Parthians oversaw intense rebuilding and resettlement. Archaeological evidence shows that the population and settlement density reached levels not seen since the Neo-Assyrian Empire.

Under Parthian rule, several small, semi-independent kingdoms with Assyrian populations appeared in the former Assyrian homeland. These included Osroene, Adiabene, and Hatra. These kingdoms lasted until the 3rd or 4th centuries AD. Although their rulers were often of Iranian or Arab descent, aspects of old Assyrian culture survived. For example, the main god worshipped at Hatra was the old Mesopotamian sun-god Shamash. Assur itself thrived under Parthian rule, with many buildings repaired or built new. From around 200 BC, the city may have become the capital of its own small, semi-autonomous realm. Stelae (stone slabs) erected by local rulers in Assur during this time looked like those of the Neo-Assyrian kings. The rulers seemed to see themselves as continuing the old Assyrian royal tradition. The ancient temple dedicated to Ashur was restored again in the 2nd century AD. Ancient Assyria's last golden age ended when the Sasanian Empire sacked Assur around 240 AD. The Ashur temple was destroyed again, and the city's people were scattered.

Late Antiquity and Middle Ages: Christianization and Challenges (240–1552)

Assyria Under the Sasanian Empire: Becoming Christian (240–637)

Modern icon of Aba I, Patriarch of the Assyrian Church of the East (540–552).

No one knows exactly when Assyrians first became Christian, but tradition says Thomas the Apostle brought Christianity to Mesopotamia. The city of Arbela was an important early Christian center. It is known that both Arbela and Kirkuk later became important Assyrian Christian centers. Some traditions say Christianity took hold when Saint Thaddeus of Edessa converted King Abgar V of Osroene in the mid-1st century AD. From the 3rd century AD, Christianity clearly became the main religion in the region, replacing the old Mesopotamian gods. Assyrians also contributed to Christian thought. For example, the Christian Assyrian writer Tatian wrote the important Diatessaron in the 1st century AD.

Assyrian Christians were sometimes persecuted in the Sasanian Empire until 422 AD. After that, the Sasanians officially allowed Christianity. The Assyrian churches became separate from other Christian churches after the 451 Council of Chalcedon. The groups that would become the Assyrian Church of the East and the Syriac Orthodox Church rejected the council's decisions. The Sasanians, who were enemies of the Roman Empire, supported the now separate Church of the East. In 421, a church meeting declared the head of the church, the Patriarch of the Church of the East, answerable only to Christ. This made the Church of the East independent.

Folklore and History: Remembering the Past

A medieval icon showing Saints Behnam, Sarah, and the Forty Martyrs.

Even without political power, the people of northern Mesopotamia (called Asoristan by the Sasanians) kept the memory of their ancient civilization alive. They felt connected to the Assyrian Empire in local stories written during the Sasanian period. There were strong links between ancient and contemporary Mesopotamia in terms of religion and culture. Christians in northern Mesopotamia connected themselves to the ancient Assyrian civilization. Kings like Sargon II, Sennacherib, Esarhaddon, and Ashurbanipal appeared in local folklore.

Many tales from the Sasanian period were new stories based on ancient Assyrian history. For example, medieval tales written in Aramaic (or Syriac) often showed Sennacherib as a pagan king who was assassinated in a family feud. His children then converted to Christianity. The legend of the Saints Behnam and Sarah, set in the 4th century, shows Sennacherib (called Sinharib) as their royal father. After Behnam converts to Christianity, Sinharib orders his execution. But Sinharib later gets a dangerous disease that is cured by being baptized in Assur. Grateful, Sinharib converts to Christianity and founds an important monastery near Mosul.

The 7th-century Assyrian History of Mar Qardagh said that Saint Mar Qardagh was a descendant of the legendary Biblical king Nimrod and the historical Sennacherib. This showed in Mar Qardagh's skill in archery and hunting. A sanctuary built for Mar Qardagh was placed directly on the ruins of a Neo-Assyrian temple. Some historians argue these tales were only based on the Bible, but some figures like Esarhaddon and Sargon II are only briefly mentioned in the Bible. These texts were very much a local Assyrian thing, as their historical accounts differed from other writings of the Sasanian Empire. The legendary figure Nimrod, usually seen as just Mesopotamian, is clearly called Assyrian in many Sasanian-period texts. He is even put into the line of Assyrian kings.

Muslim Conquest: New Rulers (637–1096)

Approximate map of the al-Jazira region under early Muslim rule.

With the fall of Ctesiphon in 637, the Sasanian Empire lost control of Mesopotamia to the Rashidun Caliphate. Many people in Mesopotamia and Persia were Christian by the time of the Muslim conquests. The new caliphate did not officially persecute Christians. They offered freedom of worship and some self-rule. However, Christians had to choose between converting to Islam, death, slavery, or becoming dhimmi. As dhimmi, they paid a special tax (jizya) to live under protected status. Some Christians fled, and some converted to Islam for economic or political reasons.

Christian communities were not completely disrupted. Most Christians stayed where they were and did not convert. The Muslim conquerors were relatively few and mostly kept to their own settlements. At first, Muslims discouraged conversions because they relied on taxes from Christians and Jews. Discrimination against Christians was milder than against Zoroastrians. In most ways, the situation of Christians under early Muslim rulers was similar to their status under the Sasanians.

However, over time, the growth of the Church of the East declined due to emigration and conversions. Christians were not allowed to convert Muslims, so the decline continued. There were also measures to harass Christians, such as not allowing new churches to be built (though repairs were allowed). Christians had to wear distinct clothing and were forbidden from disturbing Muslims with church bells or riding horses. These rules were often not strictly enforced and could be avoided with bribes. Contacts between Christians and Muslims were probably rare at first. Many Christians lived in rural communities run by other Christians.

Christians held many positions under the Umayyad caliphs. The Academy of Gondishapur, founded by Assyrians, continued to train skilled Christian doctors. Many of these doctors were employed by the caliphs. Many Christians also became scribes, accountants, and teachers. The cultural and scientific flourishing of the Islamic Golden Age (8th to 14th century) was largely possible because ancient Greek works had been copied and translated by Syriac Christian authors. These translations greatly influenced science and philosophy in the Islamic world.

9th or 10th-century dish from Iraq or western Iran, with a Syriac language inscription.

The fall of the Umayyad Caliphate and the rise of the Abbasid Caliphate in 750 was seen positively by many Christians. The Abbasids were considered more favorable to Christians. Assyrians especially benefited because the Abbasids ruled from Baghdad in Mesopotamia. The Patriarchs of the Church of the East were closer to the center of power. Their influence grew, as patriarchs were placed on the caliphs' state council. Baghdad became a great center of learning, with debates among intellectuals of all religions.

At the same time, pressure on Christians slowly increased as the Abbasids wanted to spread Islam. While influential Christians were approached politely, lower-class Christians faced pressure through higher jizya taxes. These policies led to the long decline of Christian churches in Mesopotamia. By the tenth century, Muslims became the majority population. Emigration and conversions continued, and many remaining Christians gathered for safety. Church of the East followers moved from southern Mesopotamia to northern Mesopotamia, where they were still numerous.

Under the Seljuk Empire, which conquered much of the Middle East in the 11th century, the number of Christians continued to fall. Conversions were motivated by fear, not just politics or economics. With the Crusades, Muslim attitudes towards Christians became more hostile. Church officials of the Church of the East became rich and corrupt, spending time fighting with rival churches.

Crusaders, Mongols, and Timurids: New Challenges (1096–1552)

Changes in Fortune: Persecution and Survival

The spread of the Church of the East and the Syriac language in the Middle Ages.

From the 10th to 13th centuries, Syriac literature saw a revival. Many important works were written. This period ended with persecutions in the 13th and 14th centuries. Personal names from this time show that some Assyrians still had names connected to ancient Mesopotamia. For example, a manuscript from 1272–1275 mentions a physician's son named Nebuchadnezzar.

In the 11th century, many Armenians and Syriac Christians lived in southern Anatolia and northern Syria. Crusaders often described Christians under Turkish rule as oppressed. However, the views of Armenians and Assyrians were more complex. While some local Christians helped the Crusaders capture Antioch in 1098, many also worked with the Turks against the Crusaders. Crusaders sometimes struggled to tell Turks from local Christians, leading to massacres of Christians. Many Christians likely preferred Turkish rule over the Crusaders, who were often more violent. Crusader armies also exhausted local food supplies, causing famine.

The Ilkhan Hulagu Khan and his wife Doquz Khatun in a Syriac language Bible.

The Assyrians experienced a big change when the Mongol Empire conquered the Middle East in the early 13th century. The Mongols supported religious freedom. Many Mongol tribes had Christians, and some leaders had Christian wives or mothers. Because of this, Christianity received special respect. Many in the Church of the East hoped a Mongol ruler would convert to Christianity and make the Mongol Empire Christian. These hopes were highest in the 1250s when Hulagu Khan, ruler of the Ilkhanate (the Mongol part of the Middle East), drove the Seljuk Turks from Persia and Assyria. He conquered cities like Baghdad and Mosul. Because many Mongol generals were Christians, Christians in conquered cities were often spared violence, while Muslims were killed. Hulagu also lifted restrictions on Christians, which they celebrated. When Muslims retook Damascus, Christians were heavily persecuted for their actions under Mongol rule.

Persecution Under the Ilkhanate and Timurids

The Last Judgement in a 16th-century Assyrian Bible.

The period of freedom for Assyrians ended when the Ilkhan Ghazan (1295–1304) converted to Islam in 1295. One of his first acts was to order the destruction of all Buddhist temples, Jewish synagogues, and Christian churches. Muslims under his rule were inspired to attack Christians. Ghazan later reduced the severity of his decree, but some violence continued. The situation for Assyrians worsened under Ghazan's brother, Öljaitü (1304–1316). In 1310, Assyrians in Erbil tried to escape persecution and captured the city's citadel. Despite efforts to calm the situation, the revolt was violently crushed by Kurds and the local Mongol governor. All Christian defenders and inhabitants of the lower town were massacred. The governor faced no punishment and was hailed as a hero by Muslims. After twenty years of persecution, the Church of the East's structure was largely destroyed, and most of its churches were gone.

Some small Assyrian communities thrived outside Mongol control. In the early 14th century, there was a small but thriving Assyrian community in the Kingdom of Cyprus. These Assyrians, mostly in Famagusta, had moved there after the Crusaders captured Tyre in 1187. They maintained trade connections with cities in Egypt.

Although already suppressed, Assyrians faced their worst persecution after the remnants of the Ilkhanate were conquered in 1370 by the Muslim conqueror Timur, founder of the Timurid Empire. Timur aimed to cleanse his domain of Christians and other non-Muslims. He oversaw the persecution and execution of a huge number of Christians. Timur's efforts were so relentless that some Muslims doubted he was truly Muslim, as mercy is a major Muslim virtue. By Timur's death in 1405, Assyrians and other Christians in his empire were almost wiped out. This was mainly due to Timur's actions, but also famine and the Black Death. Timur's campaigns are the main reason why Christians like the Assyrians have a tiny presence in the Middle East today. By 1410, there were only seven bishops in the Church of the East, down from 68 in 1000. The persecutions reduced the once widespread church to little more than an ethnic-religious group tied only to the Assyrian people. In the mid-15th century, Patriarch Shemon IV made the patriarch's office hereditary, passing from uncle to nephew. This was likely because there were so few bishops left that a vote was meaningless.

Modern History: Challenges and Hope (1552–Present)

Schism and Ottoman Rule: Divisions and Survival (1552–1843)

The 7th-century Rabban Hormizd Monastery near Alqosh.

Over centuries, Assyrians in different areas developed slightly different cultures and beliefs due to their neighbors. Assyrians in the homeland were influenced by Iran, while those in the west (often called Syriacs today) were influenced by Greece. The ancient Church of the East split in the 16th century when some members formed a Catholic branch, the Chaldean Catholic Church. Followers of this church are usually called Chaldeans.

This division, often called the schism of 1552, was mainly due to objections to perceived nepotism (favoring family) within the Church of the East. In the mid-16th century, the unpopular Patriarch Shemon VII Ishoyahb appointed two of his young nephews as bishops. This was so unpopular that a group of bishops in 1552 rejected his authority and elected their own patriarch, Shimun VIII Yohannan Sulaqa. Sulaqa went to Rome, submitted to the Pope, and was recognized as the new patriarch.

The Ottoman Empire conquered northern Mesopotamia in the early 16th century. One of their first acts regarding Assyrians was arresting and killing Sulaqa in 1555, likely at the urging of Shemon VII. The split in the Church of the East led each branch to seek closer ties with other Christian groups. The Chaldean Catholic Church eventually achieved full communion with the Roman Catholic Church in 1830.

The religious division within the Assyrian community has been a major obstacle in modern history. In the Ottoman Empire, people were organized into ethno-religious groups called millets, with their own laws. While some groups like Armenians were in one millet despite religious differences, the Ottomans separated the Süryani (Syriac Orthodox) and Keldani (Chaldean) into different millets in 1831. The Church of the East followers were never officially recognized as a distinct group. They were placed in the Armenian millet, but the Armenian church rarely interfered. The early centuries of Ottoman rule were mostly peaceful for Assyrians. As long as minorities paid taxes and accepted Ottoman rule, they were largely free to manage their own affairs. This allowed for cultural flourishing. From the late 15th century, Assyrian writing increased, much of it copying older texts to preserve them.

Struggles, Persecution, and Genocide (1843–1919)

In the late 19th century, Western colonialism led to Assyrians being caught between powerful colonizers and local nationalists. Colonization of the Assyrian homeland by the Ottoman, British, and local powers led to several massacres and deportations, especially around World War I. Persecutions by the Ottoman Empire and Kurdish groups were most frequent. In 1843 and 1846, Assyrians in Hakkari were massacred by a Kurdish emir and Ottoman forces. Over 10,000 were killed. Thousands more Assyrians were murdered in the Hamidian massacres (1894–1897) and the Adana massacre (1909). In the Massacres of Diyarberkir in 1895, about 25,000 Assyrians were killed. Thousands of years of being a minority, combined with many persecutions, reduced the number of Assyrians from possibly 20 million in ancient times to only about 500,000–600,000 by the early 20th century.

Freydun Atturaya (1891–1926), a founder of the Assyrian Socialist Party.

Despite their suffering, the late 19th and early 20th centuries also saw major Assyrian cultural developments. The first Assyrian newspaper, Zahrirē d-Bahra ("Rays of Light"), began publishing in 1848. The first Assyrian political party, the Assyrian Socialist Party, was founded in 1917. This party strongly supported Assyrian independence. One of its founders, Freydun Atturaya, published the Urmia Manifesto of the United Free Assyria in 1917. It called for a free and united Assyria with economic ties to Russia. Because of his Assyrian nationalist organizing, Atturaya was arrested and killed in 1926. He is still seen as a national hero by many Assyrians today.

Famous victims of the Sayfo, or Assyrian genocide: Patriarch Shimun XIX Benyamin (left, killed in 1918) and philosopher Ashur Yousif (right, killed in 1915).

In the Sayfo of the 1910s (mainly 1915), also known as the Assyrian genocide, about 250,000 Assyrians were killed. This was part of a series of genocides by the collapsing Ottoman Empire against its Christian minorities.

Assyrian volunteer troops in 1918 with a captured Turkish banner.

Assyrian refugee girls, likely from Hakkari, 1915–1918.

An Assyrian independence movement grew from these terrible events. To protect his people, Shimun XIX Benyamin, the Patriarch of the Church of the East, asked the Allies of World War I and the Russian Empire for help. Under Shimun's leadership, Assyrians fought against the Ottoman government and joined the British side in the war as Assyrian volunteers. Shimun was assassinated in 1918. The Assyrian defense force then came under the command of Agha Petros. Petros led the Assyrian forces for two years and dreamed of retaking Christian villages and founding an Assyrian state. Despite his efforts, conflicts and French and British intrigues hindered him. He was eventually exiled and died in France in 1932. Other important figures included military leaders and authors. Many Assyrians fled the Middle East, with large numbers going to the United States. In the Assyrian diaspora, the first Assyrian organizations were created.

Further Calls for Autonomy (1919–1957)

Proposed map of an independent "Assyro-Chaldea" at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919.

With the collapse of the Ottoman Empire and the rise of new nations, many minorities in the Middle East, including Assyrians, demanded self-rule. At the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, four Assyrian groups from different regions came together. They presented a manifesto and argued for an independent Assyrian state. This meeting was important because all groups, even those who identified as Chaldeans and Syriacs, united as descendants of "the ancient Assyrian nation." The manifesto defined the Assyrian people broadly. However, due to opposition from Great Britain, Assyrians were left out of the treaties that divided the Ottoman Empire. Only a small mention was made of protecting "Assyro-Chaldeans and other ethnic and religious minorities." Although their efforts didn't lead to a state, the delegation opened new communication lines between the divided groups.

After British and French colonial rule was established in Syria and Iraq, many Assyrians were recruited by the British as soldiers. This might have contributed to later anti-Assyrian feelings. In 1921, Faisal I became king of Mandatory Iraq. Under British rule, the number of Assyrians in northern Mesopotamia grew again. Although often barred from formal military and political service by Iraqi authorities, many Assyrians were politically active. Assyrian calls for independence continued. In 1932, Patriarch Shimun XXIII Eshai and other Assyrians petitioned Great Britain and the League of Nations. They asked for Assyrians to be recognized as a nation that had always lived in Iraq, not just a religious minority. They also sought more Assyrian autonomy.

Just one year after Iraq became independent, the military and local tribesmen carried out the Simele massacre in August 1933. This targeted Assyrian villages. Assyrian estimates say up to 3,000 people were killed. August 7 is still remembered as the "Day of the Assyrian Martyrs."

Assyrian refugees between the Tigris and Euphrates in 1939.

After the Simele massacre, the League of Nations proposed an Assyrian settlement in 1935, but little came of it. In 1945, Shimun XXIII submitted the Assyrian National Petition to the new United Nations. He urged the creation of an Assyrian state. However, in 1948, Shimun XXIII urged Assyrians to reconcile with Iraqi authorities and live as "loyal citizens." He hoped Assyrians might achieve autonomy instead of full independence. It was after the Simele massacre and other atrocities that the distinct Assyrian church communities (Syriacs and Chaldeans) truly began to advocate for separate identities. This development likely coincided with the founding of the secular Assyrian Democratic Organization in Syria in 1957.

Contemporary Assyria: Modern Challenges (1957–Present)

Political and Cultural Movements

Margaret George Shello (1942–1969), an iconic Assyrian guerilla fighter.

After the continued division of the Assyrian community, many remaining Assyrians in Turkey and elsewhere became involved in left-wing movements. However, they were often overshadowed by larger Kurdish political movements. Due to Turkey's continued takeover of Assyrian villages and changing their names to Turkish, many Assyrians fled Turkey. They emigrated to countries like Sweden and Germany. In Iran, Assyrians remained a small but influential minority until the Iranian Revolution of 1979, when many fled. Before 1979, the Assyrian Youth Cultural Society was founded in Tehran in 1950. This organization became the basis for the later Assyrian Universal Alliance, founded in France in 1968. After the Iranian Revolution, new religious pressures were imposed, forcing Assyrian schools to use Iranian names.

Even after the Simele massacre, the Iraqi government continued policies to curb Assyrian culture. In the 1960s, 70 towns and villages in northern Iraq were destroyed. Thousands of families were forced to move in a campaign of urbanization. In the Anfal campaign, mainly a massacre of Kurds, the Iraqi government killed about 2,000 Assyrians and destroyed over fifty historical sites. Although the Assyrian population in Iraq had risen after the Sayfo, estimates suggest it fell again between 1961 and 1991 due to mass emigrations.

Assyrians were not passive in the face of these measures. Some, like Margaret George Shello, joined the Kurdish cause against the Iraqi government. Shello joined the Peshmerga (Kurdish forces) in 1963 as their first female fighter. She commanded Kurdish forces in a battle before her death in 1969, likely assassinated. Since her death, Shello has become an icon among female Peshmerga fighters.

Assyrian flags adopted in the 20th century: used by the Assyrian delegation at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 (left) and the most common modern flag (right).

The Iraqi government saw the political unity between Assyrians and Kurds as a threat. They made many unsuccessful attempts to divide the groups. In 1973, the Iraqi President offered Assyrian leaders more rights in return for funding Assyrian military units to attack the Kurds. The Assyrian leaders refused. Assyrians in Iraq also funded books and magazines and founded many organizations. Other Assyrians became politically active and championed Assyrian autonomy. In the 1960s and 1970s, Hurmiz Malik Chikko led an unsuccessful struggle for autonomy. The most prominent Assyrian political party in Iraq, the Assyrian Democratic Movement (ADM), was founded in 1979. The ADM was established because the Iraqi government refused to recognize Assyrians in its 1977 census, forcing them to register as Arabs or Kurds.

Although some hostility between Assyrians and Kurds continues, Assyrians have played a big role in the politics of the autonomous Kurdistan Region in Iraq since 1992. Assyrian political parties participated in the first elections, with some seats reserved for the Assyrian community. While the position of Assyrians in the rest of Iraq has mostly worsened, Assyrians in the Kurdistan Region have largely thrived. Their political, cultural, and educational rights are guaranteed. Since 1991, they have been able to publish newspapers and broadcast television in their own language. More than 30 Assyrian language schools have been created with government funding, and over 20 churches have been renovated.

21st Century: New Hopes and Threats

Assyrians celebrating Akitu in Duhok, 2018.

Today, most Assyrians live outside their homeland. They continue to be divided into rival political groups and Christian denominations. There have been several unsuccessful efforts to reunite the Assyrian people under one common identity. In 2003, religious leaders, politicians, and community members met in Baghdad to agree on a unified name. They decided to use "Chaldo-Assyrian" for the people and "Syriac" for the language. While "Chaldo-Assyrian" gained some initial acceptance, it also faced backlash. Although there is some disagreement, most Assyrians and Chaldeans agree they are the same people. An uncontroversial unifying term sometimes used is the Arabic word Masīḥī (meaning Christian). Some organizations use "Assyrian-Chaldean-Syriac." At the same time, Assyrians in Turkey experienced a resurgence as families who had emigrated began to return and rebuild.

To balance Kurdish political power in northern Iraq, some Assyrians have favored closer relations with other minorities like the Yazidis and Iraqi Turkmen. Some Assyrians and Yazidis believe they are the same people, separated only by religion. In 2004, an Assyrian activist suggested that an independent Assyria could be built with the Turkmen as equal partners.

Ancient Assyrian ruins, like those of Nineveh, suffered extensive destruction of cultural heritage by the Islamic State. The Mashki Gate (left) was destroyed in 2016. The destroyed site (right) is mostly occupied by squatters.

Assyrians faced persecution and genocide again after the Iraq War. The Islamic State (ISIL) terrorist group swept over northern Iraq in 2014. ISIL began a campaign of ethnic cleansing and genocide against Christian minorities. After the Fall of Mosul in June 2014, Christians in the city were given a choice: leave, convert, or be killed. In February 2015, ISIL fighters swept through the Khabur river region in Syria. They kidnapped about 300 people, displaced 3,000, and destroyed shrines, churches, and villages. Many Assyrians were also executed. ISIL threatened not only the lives of Assyrians but also their cultural heritage. They destroyed hundreds of ancient artifacts and bulldozed large parts of the ruins of ancient cities like Nimrud, Dur-Sharrukin, Hatra, and Assur.

Although northern Mesopotamia was freed from ISIL control in 2017–2019, the future of the Assyrian people and their homeland remains uncertain. Large Assyrian communities still live in the region. Several Assyrian military units were formed to fight ISIL, but they remain smaller than other groups. The conflicts also led to tensions within the Assyrian community. Despite these issues, local Assyrian self-defense groups gained some limited self-governance. For example, the Assyrian Democratic Party made a deal in 2017 that led to a Kurdish group withdrawing from the Khabur valley, which then came under Assyrian control. Because of its central location, the Assyrian homeland and its remaining Assyrian population are threatened by renewed conflict. Among the diaspora, continued persecutions have led to fears that they will never be able to return. This has made "permanent emigration" a key part of their identity.

See also