B. F. Skinner facts for kids
Quick facts for kids
B. F. Skinner
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Skinner at the Harvard Psychology Department, c. 1950
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| Born |
Burrhus Frederic Skinner
March 20, 1904 |
| Died | August 18, 1990 (aged 86) Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.
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| Alma mater | Hamilton College (AB) Harvard University (PhD) |
| Known for | Behavior analysis Operant conditioning Radical behaviorism Verbal Behavior |
| Spouse(s) |
Yvonne (Eve) Blue
(m. 1936) |
| Awards | National Medal of Science (1968) |
| Scientific career | |
| Fields | Psychology, linguistics, philosophy |
| Institutions | University of Minnesota Indiana University Harvard University |
| Influences | Charles Darwin Ivan Pavlov Ernst Mach Jacques Loeb Edward Thorndike William James Jean-Jacques Rousseau< Friedrich Nietzsche Henry David Thoreau |
| Influenced | Maxie Clarence Maultsby Jr. Shoshana Zuboff Donald H. Kausler Sr. Robert Epstein |
| Signature | |
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Burrhus Frederic Skinner (born March 20, 1904 – died August 18, 1990) was an American psychologist. He was also a behaviorist, author, and inventor. He taught psychology at Harvard University from 1958 until he retired in 1974.
Skinner believed that our actions are shaped by what happens after them. He called this the principle of reinforcement. If something good happens after an action, you're more likely to do it again. If something bad happens, you're less likely to repeat it.
He created a field called behavior analysis, especially a way of thinking called radical behaviorism. He also started a type of research called the experimental analysis of behavior. To study how actions are strengthened, he invented the operant conditioning chamber (also known as the Skinner box). He also created the cumulative recorder to measure how often actions happened.
Skinner wrote many books and articles. His ideas about how a human community could work were explored in his 1948 novel, Walden Two. His deep study of human behavior was shared in his 1958 book, Verbal Behavior. Skinner, along with John B. Watson and Ivan Pavlov, is seen as a founder of modern behaviorism. In fact, a 2002 survey named Skinner the most important psychologist of the 20th century.
Contents
About B.F. Skinner
Skinner was born in Susquehanna, Pennsylvania. His father was a lawyer. As a young boy, he became an atheist after a teacher tried to calm his fears about hell. His younger brother, Edward, passed away at age 16.
When Skinner was young, his best friend was Raphael Miller, whom he called Doc. They both loved building things. They even set up a telegraph line between their homes! One summer, they started a business selling elderberries. They invented a device to separate ripe berries from unripe ones. It was a bent metal trough that used water to sort the berries.
His School Years
Skinner went to Hamilton College in New York, hoping to become a writer. He felt a bit out of place there because of his serious, intellectual nature. He wrote for the school paper and often criticized the college's old-fashioned rules.
After getting his degree in English literature in 1926, he went to Harvard University. There, a fellow student, Fred S. Keller, convinced him that studying behavior could be a science. This led Skinner to invent an early version of the Skinner box. He also helped create other tools for small experiments.
After college, Skinner tried to write a novel while living with his parents. He called this time his "Dark Years" because he felt he wasn't a good writer. He later found inspiration in John B. Watson's ideas about behaviorism. This led him to study psychology and develop his own behaviorism theories.
Later in Life
Skinner earned his PhD from Harvard in 1931 and stayed there as a researcher. In 1936, he started teaching at the University of Minnesota. He then moved to Indiana University in 1945, where he led the psychology department. In 1948, he returned to Harvard as a professor and stayed there for the rest of his life.
In 1936, Skinner married Yvonne "Eve" Blue. They had two daughters, Julie and Deborah. Yvonne passed away in 1997.
Skinner became more well-known in the 1970s. Even after retiring in 1974, he remained active until his death. He was diagnosed with leukemia in 1989 and died on August 18, 1990. Just ten days before he passed, he received a lifetime achievement award from the American Psychological Association. He even gave a speech about his work.
Skinner's Ideas on Psychology
What is Behaviorism?
Skinner called his way of studying behavior radical behaviorism. This idea started in the early 1900s. It was a response to other types of psychology that found it hard to make predictions that could be tested. Radical behaviorism suggests that our behavior is shaped by what has happened to us in the past, especially through reinforcement.
How Behaviorism Works
Skinner's main ideas about behaviorism were in his first book, The Behavior of Organisms (1938). He described how things in our environment control our behavior. He pointed out two types of behavior:
- Respondent behaviors are automatic reactions to specific things. Think of blinking when something flies towards your eye. These can be changed through classical conditioning, like Pavlov's dogs learning to drool at a bell.
- Operant behaviors are actions we "emit" or do on our own. They are strengthened by operant conditioning. This means if an action leads to a reward, we're more likely to do it again.
Skinner's ideas brought these two types of behavior together. He also explored some big questions about behavior:
- Where do new behaviors come from?
- How do we control our actions once we know how to do them?
- How can we explain very complex behaviors?
Where Do Behaviors Start?
Skinner's answer to where new behaviors come from was similar to Charles Darwin's idea of natural selection. Just as living things change over time, our behavior also changes. An action that is followed by a reward becomes stronger and more common. Skinner called this process shaping. It's how we gradually change behavior by rewarding small steps towards a desired action.
How We Control Our Actions
Skinner explained that an action comes under control if it's rewarded when a certain signal is present. For example, if a rat only gets food when it presses a lever *and* a light is on, it learns to press the lever only when the light is on. Skinner called this a three-term contingency: a signal (like the light), an action (lever press), and a reward (food). This idea was very important to his theory.
Explaining Complex Actions
Much of human behavior is complex. Skinner explained some of this with "chaining." This is when a series of simple actions are linked together. Each action in the chain can act as a signal for the next action and also as a reward for the previous one. For example, "noise – turn-around – light – press lever – food" is a chain of behaviors.
Skinner also recognized that many complex behaviors, especially in humans, happen suddenly. He introduced the idea of "rule-governed behavior." This means we learn to follow instructions or rules. For example, a child learns to "jump" or "open the book" when told. Once we learn many such simple verbal controls, we can follow complex instructions to do new things.
What is Reinforcement?
Reinforcement is a key idea in behaviorism. It's the main way behavior is shaped and controlled. There are two types: positive and negative.
- Positive reinforcement means adding something good to strengthen a behavior. For example, getting praise after doing something well.
- Negative reinforcement means taking away something bad to strengthen a behavior. For example, opening an umbrella stops the rain from falling on you, so you're more likely to open an umbrella next time it rains.
Both types of reinforcement make a behavior more likely to happen again. The difference is whether something is added (positive) or removed (negative). Punishment is different. It can be adding something bad (like a scolding) or taking away something good (like losing screen time). Skinner argued that punishment often only stops behavior temporarily and can have unwanted side effects. Extinction happens when a reward is no longer given, which makes the behavior weaker.
Skinner noted that Charles Darwin's idea of natural selection is also a form of "selection by consequences." He felt that reinforcement, a similar process, was not as widely accepted for explaining human behavior.
Reinforcement Schedules
Skinner realized that behavior is usually rewarded more than once. With Charles Ferster, he studied different ways rewards could be given over time. He called these schedules of reinforcement.
Here are some common schedules:
- Continuous reinforcement (CRF): Every time you do a specific action, you get a reward. This is great for teaching new behaviors quickly.
- Interval schedules: Rewards are based on time.
* Fixed interval schedule (FI): You get a reward after a set amount of time, if you do the action. For example, getting paid every two weeks. * Variable interval schedule (VI): You get a reward after an unpredictable amount of time. This leads to a steady rate of action, like checking your phone for new messages.
- Ratio schedules: Rewards are based on the number of actions you do.
* Fixed ratio schedule (FR): You get a reward after a specific number of actions. For example, getting a free coffee after buying ten. * Variable ratio schedule (VR): You get a reward after a random number of actions. This creates very fast and steady actions, like playing a slot machine.
Token Economy
Skinner's ideas have been used to create "token economies" in places like hospitals. People earn tokens for good behavior, which they can then trade for things they want, like snacks or TV time.
Verbal Behavior
Skinner spent over two decades studying how his ideas applied to human language. He published his work in the book Verbal Behavior. While Noam Chomsky strongly criticized this book, Skinner's peers were also slow to accept its ideas. This was partly because the book didn't have as much experimental evidence as his other work.
Skinner's Inventions
The Operant Conditioning Chamber
The operant conditioning chamber, or "Skinner box," is a lab tool for studying animal behavior. Skinner invented it while he was a student at Harvard. Inside the box, there was a lever for rats or a disk for pigeons. When the animal pressed it, food would appear. This made the animal press the lever more often.
By controlling when and how rewards were given, scientists could study many things. This included how often actions happened, how signals affected behavior, and how animals learned. The Skinner box greatly influenced research in animal learning. It helped scientists study simple, repeatable actions by measuring how often they occurred.
The Cumulative Recorder
The cumulative recorder was a device Skinner designed to draw a graph of repeated actions. It was used with the operant chamber. A pen would draw a line on a rolling piece of paper. Each time an animal made an action (like pressing a lever), the pen would move a tiny bit. The steeper the line, the faster the animal was responding. This tool was very important for Skinner's studies of behavior.
The Air Crib
The air crib was a special box-bed designed to be easy to clean and control temperature and humidity. Skinner created it to make parenting simpler and improve the baby's experience. He wanted to help his wife with daily tasks and keep their baby warm and comfortable in Minnesota.
The crib had three solid walls and a clear safety-glass front that could be lowered. The floor was canvas, and sheets could be easily rolled off when dirty. A control box on top kept the temperature and humidity just right, and filtered air flowed through. This crib was higher than most, making it easier for parents to reach the baby.
The air crib was controversial. People often compared it to the "Skinner box" for animals, calling it a "cruel pen." An article titled "Baby in a Box" showed Skinner's daughter looking out of the crib, which added to the doubts. Even though it was designed to help, its link to lab experiments made it hard to sell.
In 2004, a therapist claimed Skinner might have used his baby daughter in experiments. His daughter, Deborah, publicly denied this, saying her father did nothing of the sort.
The Teaching Machine
The teaching machine was a mechanical device that helped students learn. It used Skinner's ideas about learning and had a big impact on education.
One version of the machine had questions visible through a small window. Students would answer, and if they were correct, they would get a reward. Skinner believed these machines could help many students learn various subjects, from reading to music.
These machines were helpful because they gave immediate rewards, kept the learning material interesting, and let students learn at their own speed. This made students more interested and learn better by actively doing things. Teaching machines could also be changed based on how well students were doing. If a student made many mistakes, the machine could offer easier questions.
Skinner believed that effective teaching should use positive reinforcement, not punishment. He argued that punishment only teaches people how to avoid being punished. He also felt that teachers needed a better understanding of how people learn.
Skinner suggested these steps for effective teaching:
- Clearly state what the student needs to learn.
- Break the task into small, easy steps.
- Let the student do each step, rewarding correct actions.
- Adjust so the student is always successful.
- Gradually reduce rewards to keep the student performing well.
Today, computers do similar teaching tasks, and there's new interest in these ideas for adaptive learning systems.
The Pigeon-Guided Missile
During World War II, the US Navy needed a way to guide missiles to enemy ships. Old guidance systems were too big. Skinner started Project Pigeon to create a simple guidance system using pigeons. He trained pigeons to peck at a screen showing targets.
The missile's nose cone had three compartments, each with a pigeon. Lenses projected an image of the target onto a screen in front of each bird. If the pigeon pecked at the center of the target, it would guide the missile. The screen was connected to the bomb's steering system.
Even though it worked well in tests, the project was stopped. More traditional solutions, like radar, became available. Skinner often said, "our problem was no one would take us seriously." The project was later picked up again by the US Naval Research Laboratory but was eventually stopped because the pigeons' accuracy depended on too many things that couldn't be controlled. It was never used in real combat.
The Verbal Summator
Early in his career, Skinner was interested in "hidden speech." He experimented with a device called the verbal summator. This device was like an audio version of the Rorschach inkblot test. People would listen to unclear sounds and often hear meaning in them. Skinner used observations from this device to help create his theory of verbal behavior.
Skinner's Social Ideas
Skinner is well-known for his books Walden Two (1948) and Beyond Freedom and Dignity. Walden Two describes a made-up community in the 1940s where people are happier and more productive. This is because they use scientific planning and operant conditioning to raise children and organize society.
Walden Two promotes a simple lifestyle that avoids war and conflict. It encourages friendship, happiness, satisfying work, and free time. In 1967, the Twin Oaks Community was founded, using Walden Two as a guide.
In Beyond Freedom and Dignity, Skinner suggested that using a science of behavior could create a better society. He believed we would need to accept that we are not completely free agents. Skinner offered alternatives to punishment and urged people to use science to build a better world.
Political Views
Skinner's political writings focused on his hope that a scientific understanding of human behavior could solve problems. He believed it could even prevent humanity from destroying itself, especially with new technologies like the atomic bomb. Skinner saw political actions as ways to control people, either by force or by positive means. He preferred using positive reinforcement for control.
His book Walden Two describes a society that uses scientific methods to solve social problems peacefully. For example, Skinner was against physical punishment in schools. He wrote a letter to the California Senate that helped lead to a ban on spanking. Skinner's ideal society in Walden Two offers a life of friendship, health, art, and a good balance between work and free time. People feel they contribute to society, and resources are managed by keeping consumption low.
"Superstition in the Pigeon" Experiment
Skinner did an experiment to see if pigeons could become "superstitious." He put hungry pigeons in a cage where food was given out regularly, no matter what the pigeon did. He found that the pigeons started to repeat whatever action they were doing right before the food appeared. Skinner thought the pigeons acted as if their actions were making the food appear, like a ritual. He suggested this could explain some human superstitions too.
However, later psychologists have questioned Skinner's explanation. They found that the pigeons' behaviors were more complex than just random actions linked to food.
Criticisms of Skinner
Noam Chomsky's View
American linguist Noam Chomsky strongly criticized Skinner's book Verbal Behavior in 1959. Chomsky argued that Skinner's ideas couldn't explain how children learn to create and understand endless new sentences. Chomsky's review is often seen as a starting point for the "cognitive revolution" in psychology. Skinner rarely replied to critics, and he never formally answered Chomsky's critique.
Many people in the 1960s thought Skinner's silence meant Chomsky was right. However, some argue that Chomsky's criticism didn't fully understand Skinner's work. Chomsky also criticized Skinner's book Beyond Freedom and Dignity. He argued that Skinner's lab work with animals couldn't be applied to humans.
Psychodynamic Psychology
Skinner was often criticized for supposedly disliking Sigmund Freud and psychoanalysis. However, some argue that Skinner actually shared some of Freud's ideas and was influenced by them, for example, in understanding how people deal with difficult thoughts. Skinner even designed his own test, the "verbal summator," to study these hidden thoughts.
In Spanish: Burrhus Frederic Skinner para niños
