English invasion of Scotland (1385) facts for kids
In July 1385, Richard II, the young king of England, led a large English army into Scotland. This invasion was partly to get back at Scotland for raids along the border. But the main reason was that France had sent an army to Scotland the summer before. England and France were fighting the Hundred Years' War, and France and Scotland had a special agreement called the Auld Alliance to help each other.
King Richard had just become an adult, and people expected him to be a strong military leader, just like his father, Edward the Black Prince, and his grandfather, Edward III. There was some disagreement among the English leaders about whether to invade France or Scotland. The King's uncle, John of Gaunt, wanted to invade France. However, the King's friends, who were also Gaunt's rivals, preferred invading Scotland. The English government was also very low on money. Richard called upon an old way of raising an army, called the feudal levy, which hadn't been used in many years. This would be the last time it was ever called.
Richard made special rules to keep his army disciplined, but the campaign had problems from the start. One of Richard's knights was even killed by the King's own half-brother before the army reached Newcastle. Once there, the leaders argued among themselves instead of fighting the Scots. The Scottish and French armies avoided a direct battle and instead used a "scorched earth" tactic, destroying everything as they retreated. This meant the English quickly ran out of food and supplies.
By the time the English reached Edinburgh, they hadn't achieved much military success, mostly just burning churches. Gaunt might have suggested chasing the Scots into the mountains, but the King refused. The army soon went back to England. As Richard's forces left Scotland, the French and Scottish armies invaded England from the west, getting close to Carlisle. They destroyed areas in Cumbria and Durham before returning.
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Why the Invasion Happened
The English government was in a tough financial spot. They needed money to pay for their soldiers in important places like Aquitaine, Brest, Calais, and Cherbourg. The English Parliament had often refused to give the King money. Because of this, England lost many of its lands in Europe to the French. Some people blamed Richard II's chancellor, Michael de la Pole, for this.
King Richard's friends, like the earls of Nottingham and Oxford, had argued with the King's uncle, John of Gaunt, the year before. There were even rumors that the King's friends wanted to kill Gaunt during a tournament. Their disagreements were often about foreign policy. While the King's council wanted to send an army to Scotland, Gaunt wanted to go to France.
France's growing power worried England, both for national pride and for their trade. In 1384, de la Pole announced a royal expedition, but didn't say where it would go. The choice was made for them when France sent Jean de Vienne to Scotland the next year. He brought about 1,300 soldiers and 250 crossbowmen. Their goal was to help the Scots and encourage them to invade England while France was winning battles in France.
In June, a meeting in Reading decided that Scotland would be the young King's first military campaign. This invasion was part of an older plan to respond strongly to broken peace agreements. John of Gaunt had already led a small attack into Scotland in 1384, but it didn't achieve much. He reached Edinburgh but went no further. Gaunt generally got along well with the Scots and even had Scottish people in his group. He also had personal reasons to avoid war with Scotland, as peace there would help his plans in Spain.
The French Army in Scotland
As part of their agreement with France, the Scots were promised military help if war broke out with England. Gaunt's efforts to make peace between England and Scotland didn't suit France at all. They wanted to take advantage of England's problems at home. A small French group arrived in Scotland in May 1384. This happened after the Scots captured Lochmaben Castle, which was the last English stronghold in the western border area. Losing this castle made the English area of Cumberland much more open to attack. This gave Richard's council a good reason to invade Scotland instead of France.
The French invasion force, led by de Vienne, included 1,315 soldiers, 300 crossbowmen, and 200 other helpers. With all the extra people who followed armies, the total force was probably around 2,500 men. They brought horses, 600 suits of armor, and other supplies for the Scots. They also brought gold worth 50,000 French pounds for King Robert II. The French fleet left Sluys on March 22, 1385, and arrived in Leith three days later. On July 1, French and Scottish military leaders signed an agreement in Edinburgh about how they would fight their campaign. This plan was very detailed. They planned to start their campaign on July 23, but it was moved up to July 8.
Preparing for Battle
The latest peace agreement with Scotland was set to end on July 15, 1385. The English army was supposed to gather on July 14, showing they planned to invade right away. Richard II was almost eighteen, and this campaign was meant to show him as a strong conqueror of Scotland, just like his father and grandfather. People at the time saw it as something a king, and a man, should do. He had been trained since birth to follow in his father's footsteps, and this trip was his chance to show he was an independent king.
By July 10, the army had reached Nottingham. The King's court moved to York, where soldiers were paid on July 19. The King's army, with his main commanders, left York the next day. They were already almost a week behind schedule. The final gathering of troops happened at Berwick-upon-Tweed.
The King's Rules for the Army
In Durham, King Richard and his uncles, John of Gaunt and Thomas Mowbray, created military rules. They were advised by wise knights from the army. These rules are the oldest known set of rules for an English army. Written in French, they had twenty-six separate points. It was important to remind the soldiers what they could and could not do during the attack. For example, the rules clearly said no attacking churches. They also gave practical advice, like telling naval ships to stay close to the Admiral during a storm. They also set punishments for soldiers who did wrong, such as death for taking women and priests as prisoners. These rules were needed because armies were raised for short times, so soldiers couldn't be trained in discipline like a permanent army. The rules were announced on July 17.
Raising the Army
There was still a problem with money. Even though Parliament had given the King money for a campaign in November 1384, they thought it would be a fight against the French in Europe, not against the Scots in the north. Invading Scotland would go against Parliament's wishes. The King claimed he personally refused to use the money given for the French campaign.
However, the King wanted this to be a very strong invasion force. It would have been one of the largest English armies in the 1300s, and the biggest ever raised during the entire Hundred Years' War. In the end, it was still an "unusually large" army. Records suggest there were about 14,000 men in the invading army, with at least 12,000 paid soldiers and 142 captains.
Instead of using the money from Parliament, in June 1385, the King used an old feudal tax called scutage to raise funds. This could have brought in about £12,000. A six-week campaign was expected to cost around £20,000. The King sent orders to 56 major landowners. He also sent an order to the Bishop of Winchester, asking him to arm all abbots, priests, and other church people in his area. This showed Richard's desire to use the power of the church against Scotland, who supported the Antipope Clement VII, unlike England. This also helped the bishop defend the south coast of England.
The feudal levy was meant to lower the costs for the King by having his nobles pay for their own soldiers. This would save the government from paying them extra money or ransoms. It might also have been a way to show that this old way of raising an army was still possible for the King. However, this policy caused such an uproar that Richard quickly had to cancel it. He even publicly denied in Parliament that he ever intended to collect this tax. In return for the King dropping the tax, his captains agreed not to ask for recruitment bonuses. Even though it was never fully carried out, this was the last time a feudal levy of this kind was called in English history.
The Invasion Begins
The campaign started badly even before the English army reached the Scottish border. In July, Ralph Stafford, a knight in the King's household, was murdered. He was killed by Richard II's half-brother, the Earl of Huntingdon, somewhere between York and Bishopsthorpe. It might have been revenge for a fight where one of Huntingdon's squires was killed. Huntingdon escaped, and Richard was furious, swearing his half-brother would be treated like a common murderer.
The army the King finally gathered was made up of soldiers hired under contracts, not through old feudal duties. The King and Gaunt, and their supporters, made up on the journey north. The English army arrived at Durham on July 20. Just before entering Scotland, Richard made his uncles Edmund and Thomas, Dukes of York and Gloucester. He also made his Chancellor, de la Pole, the Earl of Suffolk. Richard led the army, but his uncle, John of Gaunt, who was a skilled military leader and knew Scotland well, was probably more in charge. Richard never became a great commander.
The army Richard led to Scotland was very large. Most of the important English nobles took part. The Earls of Buckingham and Nottingham led the front part of the army with Gaunt. Arundel and Warwick, under the King, led the main part. Gaunt's son, Henry, Earl of Derby, also came with his own group of soldiers. The army that crossed the Scottish border on August 6, 1385, carried 38 royal flags and over 90 flags with the arms of St. George. The flag of St Cuthbert was carried in front. In total, Richard led an army of about 14,000 men, with over two-thirds of them being archers.
English Attack
The army crossed into Scotland through the central border areas. Along this route were the abbeys of Dryburgh, Melrose, and Newbattle. These were burned. The English said these abbeys supported the "Antipope" (a rival Pope) and were used for military purposes, making them fair targets. Burning buildings was not forbidden by the army's rules.
The army reached Edinburgh on August 11. The city was attacked and looted, and much of it was burned, including St Giles' Kirk. Musselburgh Hospital was also badly damaged. It seems Holyrood Palace was saved only because Gaunt ordered it not to be touched, perhaps because he had been treated well there before.
The English strategy was to get the Scots to fight a big battle and crush them with their large numbers. However, the Scots knew this was a trap. They retreated into the hills and lived off the land, leaving little for the English army to find. The French, who preferred big battles, were dismayed by the Scottish tactics. But even de Vienne soon realized that the Scottish plan was the only effective one. The English army had to steal for food and destroyed much of Lothian. The English army showed little mercy, executing captured Scottish prisoners instead of holding them for ransom.
On August 11, Richard received news from London that his mother, Joan, Countess of Kent, had died the day before. Richard was very close to her. There seemed to be disagreement among the English commanders about whether to keep going or retreat. Food was still scarce, and there were rumors that de Vienne and his French-Scottish army were invading England from the west.
This disagreement was fueled by the jealousy and distrust between Gaunt and Richard's supporters. If Gaunt suggested going deeper into Scotland, Richard rejected it, probably because there wasn't enough food and soldiers would starve. Richard reportedly criticized Gaunt harshly, even accusing him of treason.
English Retreat
Historians often say Richard was irresponsible for not taking Gaunt's advice, as Gaunt was his most experienced commander. However, some argue that Richard was probably smart to refuse Gaunt's plan to "throw himself into the Highlands in a hopeless search for the enemy." This was similar to Gaunt's failed campaign the year before. The King seemed especially worried about his troops' well-being. He told Gaunt that while the lords might have enough food, the common soldiers would surely starve.
In the end, no new attack was made. The English commanders agreed to retreat, which began around August 17. Before they left, Richard and Gaunt made up again. The royal army's retreat was protected by Hotspur, who fought off several Scottish attacks. Three days later, the King was back in Newcastle, and within two weeks, he was back in Westminster.
French Attack into England
The English expedition had failed to live up to its careful preparations and had spent less than two weeks in enemy territory. However, reports of a French-Scottish raid into northwest England turned out to be true. On July 8, a force of French knights and about 3,000 Scottish soldiers traveled south from Edinburgh. They wore black coats with white St Andrew's crosses. Led by de Vienne and James, Earl of Douglas, they plundered much of Cumberland. The invaders reached the walls of Carlisle, about 10 miles from the border, on September 7. This attack was pushed back by Henry Hotspur.
According to a chronicler named Froissart, when the invaders raided the rich English areas of Carlisle and Durham, they boasted of stealing more from them alone than was in the whole Kingdom of Scotland. The French-Scottish force thought about attacking Roxburgh Castle, but decided it was too difficult. Wark Castle, however, was different. It had been neglected and damaged from previous Scottish attacks. The castle was eventually captured after two days of fierce fighting, with heavy losses for the French. The soldiers defending Wark were killed, the captain was held for ransom, and the castle's wooden buildings were burned.
French and Scottish Disagreements
The French, meanwhile, had "unexpected difficulties" with their Scottish hosts. They had planned to start border raids right away, but "found the Scots uncooperative." No raiding happened until July 8.
Relations between them quickly got worse. This was partly due to different military plans. For example, after the raid into the west, they decided to move east. The Scots wanted to attack Roxburgh Castle, but de Vienne, not wanting to risk his knights, insisted that if it was captured, it would be a French prize. The Scots found these terms unacceptable, so the attack didn't happen. Their different approaches also came from their very different experiences of fighting the English:
- The French wanted a long campaign that would keep many English soldiers busy. They wanted to attack the main walled towns and castles on the English border. They believed in careful planning and disciplined movements.
- The Scots wanted to fight the way they always had, with fast movements by large groups of men, maximum destruction, and capturing valuable cattle.
Relations got even worse because the French looked down on their hosts. The French knights were shocked by how "primitive" both the land and the people were. They complained about everything from the size of their living quarters to the hard beds and the quality of the beer and food. Relations worsened when the knights sent their servants out to find food from the land and villages, as was common. This custom was not popular with the locals, who often fought back violently and sometimes killed the French servants. When the French did find Scots willing to trade, they often complained about being charged too much.
For the Scots, the dislike was mutual. Although Scottish leaders respected the French as equals, the common Scots were hostile to these foreigners who couldn't speak their language and who damaged their crops by riding their warhorses many abreast. The argument over the attack on Wark Castle made things worse. Even after the English left, the Scots refused to let the French leave until they had paid for the damage they caused. Because of this, de Vienne was held almost like a hostage until money was sent from Paris to meet their demands. He couldn't leave until mid-November 1385, even though his army had left a month earlier. When de Vienne finally left Scotland, it was less because of English actions and more because the French disliked the living conditions in Scotland. De Vienne described the country as having nothing but "wild beasts, forests and mountains."
Aftermath
John of Gaunt stayed in the north after the King returned to England to manage the new peace agreement with Scotland. Their relationship was worse than ever. Making his uncle an enemy proved to be a mistake for Richard in the next few years, as he faced more opposition from his nobles. Some historians believe the Scottish trip left England's south coast open to a French attack, and indeed, a French navy was gathering that same year.
Richard's 1385 campaign was generally seen as a failure. However, as a "punishment raid," it was arguably a success. The Scots were convinced enough to agree to peace for the next three years. This was a more positive result than often noted, as southern Scotland had been so damaged that there was no more danger from the north for three years.
Richard II's concern for the ordinary soldiers' well-being during the campaign was an early sign of his "remarkable concern" that would later make him popular with his Cheshire guard. Richard's main problem after the campaign was how people saw him. Even though it might have been more successful than it seemed, Richard failed to live up to the image of a successful warrior king like his father and grandfather.
Some good news came from Spain, which was in a civil war. Gaunt was convinced by news of a Spanish defeat that he should try to claim the throne there. The next year, he led an army to make his claim. His absence from English politics was a turning point in Richard's reign. In March 1386, Richard recognized Gaunt as King of Castile and was probably as eager for Gaunt to leave as Gaunt was to go.
The rules that King Richard issued before the campaign later became the basis for those issued by King Henry V before his 1415 French campaign. Although Henry's rules had almost twice as many points as Richard's, twenty of Henry's first twenty-three points were copies of Richard's. Similar orders were used by King Henry VII in 1492 to raise the army that briefly invaded Brittany. Even as late as 1585, when Elizabeth I ordered the invasion of the Low Countries, her orders were clearly based on those from 200 years earlier. Richard's rules not only provided a plan for later armies but also "remained the main way of recruiting royal armies, and influenced the rules for armies even longer."
Richard planned another invasion of Scotland in 1389, but it never happened. There were complaints until the end of Richard's reign that the Scots often broke the peace. The next times Richard invaded a foreign country were in 1394 and 1399, when he invaded Ireland. During the 1399 invasion, Richard II was removed from power by Gaunt's son, Bolingbroke, who became King Henry IV.
