Ngo Dinh Diem facts for kids

Quick facts for kids Ngô Đình Diệm
Official portrait, 1956
1st President of the Republic of Vietnam
In office 26 October 1955 – 2 November 1963
Vice President	Nguyễn Ngọc Thơ
Preceded by	Position established Bảo Đại as Chief of the State of Vietnam
Succeeded by	Dương Văn Minh (as Chairman of the Military Revolutionary Council)
Minister of National Defense of the Republic of Vietnam
In office 26 October 1955 – 2 November 1963
President	Himself
Preceded by	Position established
Succeeded by	Trần Văn Đôn
Minister of National Defense of the State of Vietnam
In office 6 July 1954 – 26 October 1955
Prime Minister	Himself
Preceded by	Phan Huy Quát
Succeeded by	Position abolished
6th Prime Minister of the State of Vietnam
In office 19 June 1954 – 26 October 1955
Deputy	Trần Chánh Thành
Head of State	Bảo Đại
Preceded by	Prince Bửu Lộc
Succeeded by	Position abolished
Personal details
Born	(1901-01-03)3 January 1901 Quảng Bình, French Indochina
Died	2 November 1963(1963-11-02) (aged 62) Saigon, South Vietnam
Cause of death	Assassination
Resting place	Mạc Đĩnh Chi Cemetery (until 1983) Lái Thiêu Cemetery
Political party	Cần Lao
Other political affiliations	Dai Viet Renaissance Society
Relations	Ngô Đình Khôi (brother) Ngô Đình Thục (brother) Ngô Đình Nhu (brother) Ngô Đình Cẩn (brother) Ngô Đình Luyện (brother)
Parent	Ngô Đình Khả (father)
Education	Hue Pellerin Seminary National School College Hau Bo School, Hanoi Michigan State University
Signature
Military service
Allegiance	South Vietnam
Battles/wars	Vietnam War
Ngo Dinh Diem Vietnamese alphabet Ngô Đình Diệm Chữ Hán 吳廷琰

Ngô Đình Diệm (born January 3, 1901 – died November 2, 1963) was a Vietnamese politician. He was the last prime minister of the State of Vietnam from 1954 to 1955. Later, he became the first president of South Vietnam (Republic of Vietnam) in 1955. He served as president until he was captured and killed during a coup in 1963.

Diệm came from an important family. He was a member of the Catholic Church in Vietnam and his father, Ngô Đình Khả, was a high-ranking government official. Diệm studied at French schools and thought about becoming a priest like his brother, Ngô Đình Thục. But he decided to work for the government instead. He quickly moved up in the government of Emperor Bảo Đại, becoming a governor and then an interior minister. However, he resigned because he felt the emperor was controlled by France.

Diệm supported Vietnamese nationalism. He was against communism, led by Ho Chi Minh, and against colonial rule by France. He created the Can Lao Party to support his political ideas, which were based on the "Person Dignity Theory."

After living in exile for several years, Diệm returned to Vietnam in July 1954. Emperor Bảo Đại made him prime minister. Soon after, the 1954 Geneva Conference formally divided Vietnam into North and South. Diệm quickly gained power in South Vietnam, with help from his brother Ngô Đình Nhu. After a controversial election in 1955, he announced the creation of the Republic of Vietnam and became its president. The United States and other anti-communist countries supported his government.

Diệm started projects to build up the country, focusing on industry and farming. From 1957, he faced a communist uprising supported by North Vietnam, which later became known as the Viet Cong. He survived several attempts to remove him from power. In 1962, he started the Strategic Hamlet Program to fight the uprising.

In 1963, Diệm's policies, which seemed to favor Catholics and treat Buddhists unfairly, led to the Buddhist crisis. This caused problems with the United States and other countries that had supported him. His government also lost the support of the Army of the Republic of Vietnam. On November 1, 1963, leading generals launched a coup with help from the Central Intelligence Agency. Diệm and his brother Nhu tried to escape but were caught and killed the next day. Dương Văn Minh took over as president.

Diệm is a debated figure in history. Some see him as a tool of the United States, while others see him as a symbol of Vietnamese traditions. At the time of his death, many saw him as a leader who used his power unfairly.

Early Life and Family Background

Ngô Đình Diệm was born in 1901 in Quảng Bình province, in central Vietnam. His family came from Phú Cam Village, a Catholic village near Huế. His ancestors were among the first Vietnamese people to become Catholic in the 1600s. Diệm was given a saint's name, Gioan Baotixita, which is a Vietnamese form of John the Baptist. This was a common practice in the Catholic Church.

Diệm's family, the Ngô-Đình clan, suffered during times when Catholics were persecuted by emperors in the 1800s. In 1880, a riot led by Buddhist monks almost wiped out his family. More than 100 people from the Ngô clan, including Diệm's grandfather, were killed in a church.

Diệm's father, Ngô Đình Khả (1850–1925), studied at a Catholic school in British Malaya. He learned English and European subjects. He was a very religious Catholic and almost became a priest. He worked as an interpreter for the French army and fought against anti-colonial rebels. He became a high-ranking official and an advisor to Emperor Thành Thái. Even though he worked with the French, Khả wanted Vietnam to be independent. He believed Vietnam needed to change its politics and society first. In 1907, he resigned from his positions and became a farmer.

Khả had twelve children with his second wife, Phạm Thị Thân. Nine of them survived childhood. These included six sons and three daughters: Ngô Đình Khôi, Ngô Đình Thục, Ngô Đình Diệm, Ngô Đình Nhu, Ngô Đình Cẩn, and Ngô Đình Luyện. As a devout Catholic, Khả took his family to daily Mass. He encouraged his sons to become priests. Diệm's father taught his children about both Christian scriptures and Confucian classics.

As a child, Diệm worked in his family's rice fields. He also studied at a French Catholic primary school in Huế. Later, he attended a private school started by his father, where he learned French, Latin, and classical Chinese. At age fifteen, he briefly joined a seminary to study for the priesthood, following his older brother, Ngô Đình Thục. Thục later became Vietnam's highest-ranking Catholic bishop. Diệm wanted to show his devotion to his faith, but he found the life of a monk too strict. He decided not to become a priest. Diệm also shared his father's dislike for the French rulers of his country.

After finishing high school, Diệm was offered a scholarship to study in Paris. He turned it down. In 1918, he enrolled at a school in Hanoi that trained young Vietnamese for colonial administration. Here, he had a romantic relationship with a teacher's daughter. When she decided to become a nun, Diệm remained unmarried for the rest of his life. Diệm's family background and education, especially his Catholic faith and knowledge of Confucianism, greatly influenced his life and political ideas. He often used Bible references in his speeches and enjoyed showing his knowledge of classical Chinese texts.

Early Career in Government

The five high-ranking mandarins of the Nguyễn dynasty (from left to right): Hồ Đắc Khải, Phạm Quỳnh, Thái Văn Toản, Ngô Đình Diệm, Bùi Bằng Đoàn

After graduating at the top of his class in 1921, Diệm joined the government service. He started as a junior official in Thừa Thiên province. Over the next ten years, Diệm steadily rose through the ranks. He first worked at the royal library in Huế. Within a year, he became a district chief in Thừa Thiên and Quảng Trị provinces, overseeing many villages. At 28, Diệm was promoted to be a provincial chief in Ninh Thuận, managing 300 villages.

During his time as a government official, Diệm was known for working very hard and for being honest. He was also seen as a Catholic leader and a nationalist. His Catholic background and family connections helped him advance in his career. The French were impressed by his work ethic but were annoyed by his frequent requests for Vietnam to have more independence. Diệm said he thought about resigning but the people encouraged him to continue. In 1925, he first met communists who were spreading their ideas. He was against their calls for violent revolution and started printing his own pamphlets against communism.

In 1929, he became the governor of Bình Thuận Province. In 1930 and 1931, he helped the French stop peasant revolts organized by communists. In 1933, when Bảo Đại became emperor, Diệm accepted his invitation to be interior minister. Diệm then led a group to suggest government reforms. He asked the French to create a Vietnamese legislature and other political changes. When his ideas were rejected, he resigned after only three months. Diệm said Emperor Bảo Đại was "nothing but an instrument in the hands of the French administration." He gave back his awards and titles from Bảo Đại. The French then threatened to arrest him.

For the next ten years, Diệm lived as a private citizen in Huế, but he was watched by the authorities. He spent his time reading, praying, gardening, hunting, and taking photos. Diệm also worked on nationalist activities. He met and wrote to many Vietnamese revolutionaries, like his friend Phan Bội Châu, who was against colonial rule. Diệm respected Châu's knowledge of Confucianism and believed its teachings could help modern Vietnam.

When World War II started in the Pacific, Diệm saw a chance for Vietnam to challenge French rule. In 1942, he tried to convince the Japanese forces to declare Vietnam independent, but they ignored him. Diệm also tried to connect with Japanese diplomats and military officers who supported Vietnam's independence. In 1943, his Japanese friends helped him contact Prince Cường Để, an anti-colonial activist living in exile in Japan. After this, Diệm formed a secret political party called the Association for the Restoration of Great Vietnam. This group was mostly made up of his Catholic allies in Hue. When the French found out about it in 1944, they ordered his arrest. He flew to Saigon under Japanese protection and stayed there until the war ended.

In 1945, after the Japanese left, Ho Chi Minh declared the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. In North Vietnam, his Viet Minh forces began fighting the French. Diệm tried to go to Huế to convince Bảo Đại not to join Hồ, but the Việt Minh arrested him. He was exiled to a village near the border. He was very sick but local tribesmen helped him recover. Six months later, he met Hồ, who recognized Diệm's abilities. Hồ asked Diệm to be a minister in his new government. Diệm refused, blaming Hồ for the murder of his brother, Ngô Đình Khôi, by Việt Minh members.

During the First Indochina War, Diệm and other non-communist nationalists faced a difficult choice. They did not want French colonial rule to return, but they also did not want to support the Việt Minh. Diệm declared himself neutral and tried to create a "Third Force" movement. This movement was against both colonialism and communism. In 1947, he founded the National Union Bloc, which brought together non-communist Vietnamese nationalists. He also became friends with other anti-communists. His allies and advisors were mostly Catholics, including his family members.

Diệm also secretly talked with leaders of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. He tried to convince them to leave Hồ Chí Minh's government and join him. At the same time, he pushed French officials for "true independence" for Vietnam. Diệm was disappointed when, in June 1948, Bảo Đại signed an agreement that kept Vietnam as an "associated state" within the French Union. This allowed France to keep control over Vietnam's foreign policy, economy, and military. The French then created the State of Vietnam, and Diệm refused Bảo Đại's offer to become Prime Minister. In 1949, he published a new statement in newspapers, announcing a third force different from both Viet Minh and Bảo Đại. However, it did not gain much interest. In 1950, the Việt Minh sentenced him to death in his absence, and the French refused to protect him. Hồ Chí Minh's forces tried to kill him while he was visiting his brother Thục. Recognizing the danger, Diệm decided to leave Vietnam in 1950.

Time in Exile

Diệm asked for permission to travel to Rome for the Holy Year celebrations at the Vatican. After getting French permission, he left in August 1950 with his older brother, Bishop Ngô Đình Thục. Before going to Europe, Diệm went to Japan. There, he met Prince Cường Để, his former ally, and discussed Cường Để's plans to return to Vietnam. Diệm's friend also arranged a meeting between him and Wesley Fishel, an American political science professor working for the CIA in Japan. Fishel believed in an anti-colonial, anti-communist "third force" in Asia. He was impressed with Diệm and helped him make connections in the United States. In 1951, Diệm flew to the United States to seek support from government officials. However, he was not successful in getting official US support for Vietnamese anti-communists.

In Rome, Diệm met Pope Pius XII at the Vatican. He then continued to seek support across Europe. He also met with French and Vietnamese officials in Paris. He sent a message to Bảo Đại, saying he was willing to be the Prime Minister of the State of Vietnam. But Bảo Đại refused to meet him. Diệm returned to the United States to continue building support among Americans. However, for Americans, being anti-communist was not enough to make Diệm stand out from Bảo Đại and other leaders. Some American officials worried that his strong Catholic faith might make it hard for him to gain support in a country that was mostly not Catholic. Diệm understood this concern. He expanded his efforts to include a focus on development, in addition to anti-communism and religion. Diệm knew that the US was eager to use its technology and knowledge to help modernize newly independent countries. With help from Fishel, then at Michigan State University (MSU), Diệm became a consultant to MSU's Government Research Bureau. MSU was running government-sponsored aid programs for Cold War allies. Diệm helped Fishel set up a program that was later used in South Vietnam, called the Michigan State University Vietnam Advisory Group.

Americans had different opinions of Diệm. Some were not impressed, while others admired him. Diệm gained favor with some high-ranking officials, such as Supreme Court Justice William O. Douglas, Catholic cardinal Francis Spellman, and Representatives Mike Mansfield and John F. Kennedy. He also gained support from many journalists, academics, and the former director of the Office of Strategic Services, William J. Donovan. Even though he didn't get official US support right away, his meetings with American political leaders promised more support in the future. Mansfield recalled that after a lunch with Diệm in May 1953, he felt that "if anyone could hold South Vietnam, it was somebody like Ngô Đình Diệm."

During Diệm's exile, his brothers Nhu, Cẩn, and Luyện helped him build connections and support both internationally and within Vietnam. In the early 1950s, Nhu established the Cần Lao Party. This party played a key role in helping Diệm gain and keep his power.

Becoming Prime Minister and Gaining Power

By 1953, the State of Vietnam was supposedly independent from Paris. However, many non-communist Vietnamese nationalists were unhappy with France and Bảo Đại. Support for Diệm's idea of "true independence" was growing among these groups and his allies. Diệm felt it was time for him to take power in Vietnam.

In early 1954, Bảo Đại offered Diệm the position of Prime Minister in Vietnam's new government. In May 1954, the French lost a major battle at Điện Biên Phủ. The Geneva Conference began in April 1954. On June 16, 1954, Diệm met with Bảo Đại in France. He agreed to be Prime Minister if Bảo Đại gave him control over the military and civilian government. On June 25, 1954, Diệm returned from exile, arriving in Saigon. On July 7, 1954, Diệm formed his new government with 18 cabinet members.

At first, Diệm did not have much power. He didn't control the military or police, and French officials still held key government positions. He also couldn't control the Bank of Indochina. Diệm faced many challenges:

• Many refugees needed help.
• French colonists wanted to remove Diệm to protect France's interests.
• General Nguyễn Văn Hinh, a pro-French leader of the National Army, was ready to overthrow Diệm.
• Leaders of the Hòa Hảo and Cao Đài religious armies wanted positions in Diệm's cabinet and full control over areas where they had many followers.
• The biggest threat was Bình Xuyên, an organized crime group that controlled the National Police in Saigon, led by Lê Văn Viễn.

In summer 1954, these three groups controlled about one-third of South Vietnam's land and population. To overcome these challenges, Diệm relied on his political skills, his family, and the support of his American backers.

Vietnam is Divided

On July 21, 1954, the Geneva Accords temporarily divided Vietnam at the 17th parallel. This was meant to last until elections in July 1956 would reunite the country. The Democratic Republic of Vietnam controlled the North. The French-backed State of Vietnam, with Diệm as Prime Minister, controlled the South. Diệm criticized the French for giving North Vietnam to the Communists at Geneva. He said the agreement did not represent the will of the Vietnamese people. He refused French suggestions to include more pro-French officials in his government.

The Geneva Accords allowed people to move freely between the two zones until October 1954. This put a huge strain on the South. Diệm expected only 10,000 refugees, but by August, over 200,000 were waiting to leave Hanoi and Hải Phòng. However, this migration helped strengthen Diệm's political support base. To handle the refugees, Diệm's government moved them to fertile, less populated areas in the western Mekong Delta. The government also gave them food, shelter, farm tools, and housing materials. They dug irrigation canals, built dikes, and drained swamps to help the refugees settle.

Gaining Control

In August 1954, Diệm also faced the "Hinh crisis." General Nguyễn Văn Hinh publicly attacked Diệm, saying South Vietnam needed a "strong and popular" leader. Hinh even boasted he was planning a coup. However, by the end of 1954, Diệm successfully forced Hinh to resign. Hinh had to flee to Paris and hand over his command of the national army to General Nguyễn Văn Vy. But the National Army officers preferred Diệm's leadership over General Vy, forcing Vy to flee to Paris too. Despite Hinh's failed coup, the French continued to encourage Diệm's enemies to destabilize him.

On December 31, 1954, Diệm created the National Bank of Vietnam. He replaced the old Indochinese money with new Vietnamese banknotes. In early 1955, American advisors encouraged Diệm to negotiate with the leaders of the religious groups that threatened his position. They wanted him to form an anti-communist alliance. However, Diệm decided to attack his enemies to strengthen his power. In April 1955, Diệm's army took most of Bình Xuyên's positions in Saigon after winning the Battle of Saigon. Within a few months, Diệm's troops wiped out the remaining Bình Xuyên forces. The failure of Bình Xuyên marked the end of French efforts to remove Diệm. After this defeat, Diệm's government gained more authority and respect. Most of the Cao Đài leaders chose to support Diệm's government. Diệm then broke up the private armies of the Cao Đài and Hòa Hảo religious groups. By the end of 1955, Diệm had almost full control of South Vietnam. His government was stronger than ever. By April 1956, with the capture of Ba Cụt, the last Hòa Hảo rebel leader, Diệm had mostly defeated all his non-communist enemies. He could then focus on his Vietnamese communist opponents. Diệm's success in defeating his enemies and gaining power strengthened US support for his government.

Presidency (1955–1963)

Forming the Republic of Vietnam

Presidential Standard of South Vietnam (1955–1963)

In South Vietnam, a vote was set for October 23, 1955. People would choose between Diệm and Bảo Đại to lead South Vietnam. During the election, Diệm's brother, Ngô Đình Nhu, and the Cần Lao Party helped Diệm's campaign. They organized and oversaw the elections, especially a campaign to damage Bảo Đại's reputation. Supporters of Bảo Đại were not allowed to campaign and were sometimes attacked by Nhu's workers. The official results showed that 98.2 percent of voters chose Diệm. This was an unbelievably high result and was seen as unfair. The total number of votes was much higher than the number of registered voters, by over 380,000. For example, only 450,000 voters were registered in Saigon, but 605,025 were said to have voted for Diệm.

On October 26, 1955, Diệm announced the creation of the Republic of Vietnam. He became its first President. The first Constitution set up the republic and how its president would be elected. The 1954 Geneva Accords called for elections to reunite the country in 1956. Diệm refused to hold these elections. He claimed that free elections were not possible in the North. He also said that since the previous State of Vietnam had not signed the accords, they were not bound by them. Diệm's rejection of the Geneva accords was a way to object to the French colonization of Vietnam. Diệm's removal of Bảo Đại and the creation of the First Republic of Vietnam was a way to declare Vietnam's independence from France. At the same time, the first Constitution of the Republic of Vietnam was put into effect. This Constitution gave Diệm a lot of power as president, and his way of governing became more controlling over time.

Diệm's rule was very strong and he often gave important jobs to family members. His most trusted official was Nhu, who led the main pro-Diệm political party, Can Lao. Nhu admired Adolf Hitler and based the Can Lao secret police's marching style and torture methods on Nazi designs. His brother Cẩn was in charge of the former Imperial City of Huế. Even though Cẩn and Nhu didn't have official government roles, they controlled their regions of South Vietnam. They commanded private armies and secret police. His youngest brother, Luyện, became Ambassador to the United Kingdom. His older brother, Ngô Đình Thục, was the Archbishop of Huế. Thuc lived in the Presidential Palace with Nhu, Nhu's wife, and Diệm. Diệm was a strong nationalist, a devout Catholic, against Communists, and believed in the philosophies of personalism and Confucianism.

The Can Lao Party was very important in Diệm's government. At first, the party worked secretly through a network of small groups. Each member only knew a few other members. When needed, the Party could act like the government. After 1954, the party's existence was known, but its activities were kept secret. In the early 1950s, Diệm and Nhu used the party to gather support for Diệm's political goals. The Can Lao Party was officially established on September 2, 1954. Personalism (Vietnamese: Chủ nghĩa nhân vị) officially became the main idea of Diệm's government. The Constitution's introduction stated that the country would be built "based on respecting Personalism."

Elections and Democracy

Diệm voting in the 1959 parliamentary election

For Diệm, democracy was linked to his Catholic and Confucian beliefs. He saw it as a "social way of life based on a sense of moral duty," not just political rights or different political parties like in the US. He believed that in an Asian country like Vietnam, Confucian and Catholic values were important for solving modern political and social problems. Diệm argued that post-colonial Vietnam needed to be democratic, but its democracy should grow from its own traditions, not just European or American ideas. He said that Vietnamese "institutions, customs and the principles underlying them are democratic facts."

In summer and fall of 1955, Diệm's government had to decide what to do with Bảo Đại. Bảo Đại was supposed to remain head of state until National Assembly elections. But Diệm's cabinet decided to hold a vote to decide the monarch's fate. Even though Bảo Đại was unpopular because he worked with the French, the new government tried to make his reputation even worse with strong campaigns against him. The vote itself was not secret. Voters were given ballots with photos of Diệm and Bảo Đại. They had to tear the ballot in half and put their chosen candidate's slice into a box. This made their choice visible to everyone. Diệm believed the outcome was fair, seeing democracy as people choosing a morally superior leader.

On March 4, 1956, elections for the first National Assembly were held. These elections were more fair than the referendum. Some government candidates competed strongly with independent and opposition candidates. Non-government candidates were allowed to campaign, and the election felt more open. However, the government could ban candidates thought to be linked to communists or other 'rebel' groups. Campaign materials were also checked. In some areas, opposition candidates withdrew because of police threats and military presence. Surprisingly, Diệm let the National Assembly deputies create the constitution, instead of a handpicked group. The government praised this as democratic and open, as Assembly meetings were public and media were allowed.

However, Diệm's "democratic one-man rule" faced growing problems. After pressure from within Vietnam and from the United States, Diệm agreed to hold legislative elections in August 1959 for South Vietnam. But in reality, newspapers were not allowed to publish names of independent candidates or their ideas. Political meetings of more than five people were forbidden. Candidates running against government-supported opponents faced harassment. In rural areas, candidates were threatened with charges of working with the Việt Cộng, which could lead to the death penalty. Phan Quang Đán, a well-known critic of the government, was allowed to run. Despite 8,000 plainclothes soldiers being sent to his district to vote, Đán still won by a large margin. Soldiers were bused in to vote for government-approved candidates across the country. When the new assembly met, Đán was arrested.

In May 1961, U.S. Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson visited Saigon. He famously called Diệm the "Winston Churchill of Asia." When asked why, Johnson said, "Diệm's the only boy we got out there." Johnson promised Diệm more aid to build a fighting force against the communists.

Rural Development and Land Policies

Diệm wanted to create a strong national spirit in South Vietnam. He also aimed for a lively community-based democracy and an independent, non-communist Vietnam. He believed that farmers were key to building the nation. He thought they would put the country before their own interests and volunteer to help. A special office called the Special Commissariat for Civic Action was created. Its goal was to connect the Saigon government with rural areas. It also helped create 'model villages' to show farmers that the South Vietnamese government was working. This office allowed volunteers and experts to help communities develop and link them to the nation.

Land Reform: In South Vietnam, especially in the Mekong Delta, a few rich families owned most of the land. So, land reform was very important. Diệm tried twice to control the unfair land rental system. In January 1955, he issued a rule to lower land rent to 15-25% of the average harvest. In February 1955, he issued another rule to protect the rights of tenants on new and unused land. In October 1956, Diệm issued a more serious land reform rule. It set a limit of 100 hectares (about 247 acres) for rice land and 15 hectares (about 37 acres) for land used for ancestral worship. However, this rule didn't have much effect because many landowners avoided it by transferring property to family members. Also, during the war against the French (1946–54), the Việt Minh had taken control of parts of southern Vietnam. They had started land reform, taken land from landlords, and given it to peasants. Additionally, the limit was much higher than in Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan. The Catholic Church's 370,000 acres of land in Vietnam were also exempt. The land reform had little political, social, or economic impact. From 1957 to 1963, only half of the land taken was given out again. Only 100,000 out of about one million tenant farmers in South Vietnam benefited.

Resettlement: Diệm believed that farmers were "real working people" and wanted to help them become middle-class farmers. Instead of just focusing on land reform, Diệm had his own idea for rural development based on moving people. He thought moving people, rather than just land, could help with overpopulation. It could also lead to social and economic changes, and help with military and security issues, especially preventing communist influence. Diệm also saw resettlement as a way to achieve his government's goals.

• The Cái Sắn resettlement project: In late 1955, with US support, Diệm's government started the Cái Sắn project in An Giang province. It aimed to resettle 100,000 refugees from the North.
• Land Development program (Khu dinh điền): In early 1957, Diệm started a new program called Land Development. It moved poor people, former soldiers, and minority groups in central and southern Vietnam to unused land in the Mekong Delta and Central Highlands. The goal was to use technology to transform South Vietnam, ensure security, and prevent communist infiltration. Diệm believed the program would improve people's lives and teach them to be self-reliant and hardworking. By the end of 1963, the program had built over 200 settlements for a quarter of a million people. However, poor conditions in these areas, along with corruption by local officials, caused the program to fail.
• Agroville program (khu trù mật): In late 1959 and early 1960, Diệm started the Agroville Program. He wanted to move people from remote areas in the Mekong Delta into new, "dense and prosperous areas." He aimed to offer them modern city comforts without leaving their farms, and to keep them away from communists. However, by late 1960, Diệm admitted the program failed. Residents were unhappy, and communists had infiltrated it, so he stopped it.

The disagreements between the US and Diệm over land reform worsened their relationship. Diệm genuinely wanted to end the hardship faced by millions of rural South Vietnamese. He wanted to help poor farmers through gradual modernization and some land redistribution. Diệm's ideal was a Vietnamese countryside dominated by independent farmers with similar wealth. He wanted to take and distribute land from rich landowners but also protect the property of middle-class ones. Overpopulation, made worse by refugees from the North, was a major concern for Diệm, which he hoped to ease through resettlement. Diệm saw resettlement as a key part of his economic nationalism. He believed using Vietnamese land would increase grain and rubber production, allowing South Vietnam to join international trade.

Fighting the Uprising

During his presidency, Diệm focused strongly on keeping his government safe and maintaining order. He had strict policies against rebellion. After defeating the Bình Xuyên and controlling the Hòa Hảo and Cao Đài groups, Diệm focused on his biggest threat: the communists. Diệm used threats, punishment, and intimidation to maintain security. His government fought against North Vietnamese and communist actions, including the killing of over 450 South Vietnamese officials in 1956. They arrested tens of thousands of suspected communists and sent them to "political re-education centers." The North Vietnamese government claimed that over 65,000 people were imprisoned and 2,148 killed by November 1957. By the end of 1959, Diệm had strong control over families, and the communists faced their "darkest period." Their membership dropped significantly, and they had almost no power in the countryside. Diệm's strict actions also affected anti-communist critics and people who reported corruption. In 1956, after an "Anti-Communist Denunciation Campaign," Diệm issued a rule that allowed anyone considered a threat to the state to be jailed or put under house arrest.

However, Diệm's harsh policies caused fear and anger in many parts of South Vietnam. This also negatively affected his relationship with the US regarding how to fight the uprising. On February 22, 1957, a communist named Hà Minh Tri tried to kill Diệm during a speech. Diệm was not harmed. This assassination attempt showed the communists' desperate response to Diệm's strong anti-communist policies.

As opposition to Diệm's rule grew in South Vietnam, a small-scale uprising began in 1957. Finally, in January 1959, under pressure from southern Viet Cong members, North Vietnam's Central Committee secretly approved using armed rebellion in the South. They would send supplies and troops from the North. On December 20, 1960, following instructions from Hanoi, southern communists formed the Viet Cong (NLF) to overthrow the government. On November 11, 1960, a coup attempt against Diệm failed. It was led by Lieutenant Colonel Vương Văn Đông and Colonel Nguyễn Chánh Thi of the ARVN. There was another attempt to kill Diệm and his family in February 1962 when two air force officers bombed the Presidential Palace.

South Vietnamese "Strategic Hamlet"

In 1962, Diệm started the Strategic Hamlet Program (Vietnamese: Ấp Chiến lược). This was his most ambitious plan to fight the uprising. It aimed to combine 14,000 villages in South Vietnam into 11,000 secure hamlets. Each hamlet would have its own houses, schools, wells, and watchtowers, supported by the South Vietnamese government. The hamlets were meant to separate the National Liberation Front (NLF) from the villages. The villages were their source for soldiers, supplies, and information. The program also aimed to transform the countryside. In the end, due to many problems, the Strategic Hamlet Program was not as successful as hoped and was stopped after Diệm's assassination. However, the program did help Diệm's government turn the tide in their war against communism.

Religious Policies and the Buddhist Crisis

Most people in Vietnam followed Buddhism, though some also practiced other traditions like Vietnamese folk religion and Taoism. Historians generally agree that Diệm's government favored Catholics, which angered many Buddhists. The government seemed to prefer Catholics for public service and military promotions. They also seemed to favor them in land allocation, business deals, and tax breaks. Diệm reportedly once told an officer, forgetting he was Buddhist, "Put your Catholic officers in sensitive places. They can be trusted." Many officers in the Army of the Republic of Vietnam became Catholic, believing it would help their careers. Weapons for village self-defense groups, meant to fight Việt Cộng, were often given only to Catholics. Some Buddhist villages converted to Catholicism to receive aid or avoid being forced to move by Diệm's government. Buddhist soldiers were sometimes denied promotions if they refused to convert. Some Catholic priests had their own private armies. In some areas, there were forced conversions, looting, and destruction of pagodas.

The Catholic Church owned the most land in the country. Buddhism was considered a "private" religion by the French, meaning it needed official permission for public activities. Diệm's government never changed this rule. Catholics were also often excused from the forced labor that the government required of all citizens. US aid was given more to Catholic-majority villages. Land owned by the Catholic Church was exempt from land reform. Under Diệm, the Catholic Church had special benefits in acquiring property. In 1959, Diệm dedicated his country to the Virgin Mary. The white and gold Vatican flag was often flown at major public events in South Vietnam. The new Hue and Dalat universities were placed under Catholic control to promote a Catholic-leaning academic environment. However, Diệm also helped Buddhist communities. He allowed them to do activities that the French had banned and provided money for Buddhist schools, ceremonies, and building more pagodas. Among Diệm's eighteen cabinet members, there were five Catholics, five Confucians, and eight Buddhists, including a vice-president and a foreign minister. Only three of the top nineteen military officials were Catholics.

Relations with the United States worsened in 1963 as discontent grew among South Vietnam's Buddhist majority. In May, in Huế, a largely Buddhist city where Diệm's older brother was the Catholic archbishop, Buddhists were not allowed to display Buddhist flags during Vesak celebrations. The government said it was against a rule prohibiting non-government flags. However, a few days earlier, white and yellow Catholic papal flags had been flown for the 25th anniversary of Ngô Đình Thục becoming a bishop. Diệm then banned demonstrations and ordered his forces to arrest those who protested. On June 3, 1963, protesters tried to march towards the Từ Đàm pagoda. Six attempts by the army using tear gas and attack dogs failed to scatter the crowds. Finally, brownish-red liquid chemicals were sprayed on praying protesters, sending 67 to the hospital with chemical injuries. A curfew was then put in place.

Diệm used his usual anti-communist argument, saying the protesters were communists. As protests continued throughout the summer, special forces loyal to Diệm's brother, Nhu, raided the Xá Lợi pagoda in Saigon in August. Pagodas were damaged, monks were beaten, and the ashes of a monk named Quảng Đức, which included his heart (a religious relic), were taken. Similar raids happened across the country. The Từ Đàm pagoda in Huế was looted, a statue of Gautama Buddha was destroyed, and the body of a deceased monk was taken. When people tried to defend the monks, 30 civilians were killed and 200 wounded in the clashes. In total, 1,400 monks were arrested, and about thirty were injured nationwide. The United States showed its disapproval when ambassador Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. visited the pagoda. No more large Buddhist protests happened during the rest of Diệm's rule.

The pagoda raids caused widespread public anger in Saigon. Students at Saigon University boycotted classes and rioted, leading to arrests and the university's closure. This also happened at Huế University. When high school students protested, Diệm arrested them too. Over 1,000 students from Saigon's top high school, many of them children of government workers, were sent to re-education camps. Some reports said children as young as five were sent for writing anti-government graffiti. Diệm's foreign minister, Vũ Văn Mẫu, resigned and shaved his head like a Buddhist monk in protest. When he tried to leave the country for a religious trip to India, he was stopped and kept under house arrest.

The Buddhist protests during Diệm's rule were not just about religious discrimination. They were also about Vietnamese Buddhism resisting Diệm's nation-building policies, which were based on his personalist ideas. Buddhists saw these policies as a threat to the return of Buddhist power in Vietnam. Until the end of his life, Diệm and his brother Nhu still believed their nation-building efforts were successful. They thought they could solve the Buddhist crisis just like they had handled other challenges in the past.

Some scholars argue that American media coverage of the conflict was biased, spreading a story of an "evil dictator Diệm oppressing good, peaceful Buddhists." Because of this, Diệm was seen as a harsh and unfair leader in the United States when he was killed. However, Diệm had relatively good relations with Buddhists until 1963. He even supported many Buddhist temples, especially Xá Lợi Pagoda in 1956. Vietnamese Buddhists had their own nationalist vision for Vietnam and were political opponents of Diệm. The Buddhist challenge to Diệm was politically motivated and a struggle for power, not just a religious conflict. The Buddhist movement's leader, Thích Trí Quang, insisted that the protests must continue until the South Vietnamese government was overthrown. Diệm reacted to the Buddhist resistance in the same way he dealt with earlier challenges. The Xá Lợi Pagoda raids successfully broke the protesters' movement. The military supported Diệm, and army leaders helped plan the raids. Only American disapproval made military leaders rethink their support for Diệm.

Foreign Relations

Diệm himself largely shaped the foreign policy of the Republic of Vietnam (RVN) during his presidency. His advisor, Ngô Đình Nhu, and his foreign ministers played smaller roles. However, because Diệm focused so much on domestic issues during the Vietnam War, foreign policy did not always get enough attention. Diệm paid more attention to countries that directly affected Vietnam. He often had personal and emotional reactions to relations with other nations. The main foreign policy issues for Diệm were: the Geneva Accords, the French withdrawal, gaining international recognition, establishing the RVN's legitimacy, and relations with the United States, Laos (good official relations), and Cambodia (complicated relations due to border disputes and ethnic minorities), and especially North Vietnam. The RVN also focused on diplomatic relations with other Asian countries to gain international recognition.

Diệm, accompanied by US Secretary of State John Foster Dulles, arrives at Washington National Airport in 1957. Diệm is shown shaking hands with US President Dwight D. Eisenhower.

Diệm's attitude toward India was not friendly because of India's neutral policy, which Diệm thought favored communism. It was not until 1962, when India voted for a report criticizing the communists for supporting the invasion of South Vietnam, that Diệm changed his opinion of India. With Japan, Diệm's government established diplomatic relations to get war reparations. This led to an agreement in 1959 for $49 million. Diệm also formed friendly relations with non-communist states, especially South Korea, Taiwan, the Philippines, Thailand, Laos, and the Federation of Malaya. These countries shared Diệm's concern about communist threats.

Regarding relations with communist North Vietnam, Diệm remained completely hostile. He never made a serious effort to establish any relations with them. In relations with France, as an anti-colonial nationalist, Diệm did not trust France. France was always a negative factor in his foreign policy. He never saw France as a way to balance American influence.

Concerning relations with the US, Diệm understood the importance of the US-RVN alliance. However, he believed that US aid to the RVN mainly served America's own interests, not Vietnam's. Diệm's distrust of the US grew because of its policy in Laos, which gave North Vietnam access to South Vietnam's border through southern Laos. Diệm also feared an increase in American military personnel in South Vietnam. He worried this would harm his nationalist image and his government's independence. In early 1963, the Ngô brothers even reconsidered their alliance with the US. They also disagreed with the US on how best to respond to the threat from North Vietnam. Diệm believed that military and security matters should be handled before opening the political system to other groups. The US wanted the opposite and criticized Diệm's government, which was based on his family members and trusted associates. The Buddhist crisis in South Vietnam reduced American confidence in Diệm. This eventually led to the coup d'état approved by the US. Ultimately, different ideas about nation-building shaped the alliance between the US and Diệm and led to its collapse. Different understandings of democracy, community, security, and social change were major causes of tension throughout their alliance.

Coup and Assassination

As the Buddhist crisis worsened in July 1963, non-communist Vietnamese nationalists and the military began planning a coup. Bùi Diễm, who later became South Vietnam's Ambassador to the United States, wrote in his memoirs that General Lê Văn Kim asked for his help to find out what the United States might do about Diệm's government. Diễm had contacts at the US Embassy and with important American journalists in South Vietnam.

The coup was mainly planned by ARVN generals led by General Dương Văn Minh. A CIA officer named Lucien Conein became a link between the US Embassy and the generals, who were led by Trần Văn Đôn. They first met on October 2, 1963. Three days later, Conein met with General Dương Văn Minh to discuss the coup and the US's position. Conein then delivered the White House's message that America would not interfere. Henry Cabot Lodge Jr., the US ambassador, secretly assured the generals that the United States would not get involved.

The coup was mostly planned by the Vietnamese generals. Unlike a coup in 1960, the plotters of the 1963 coup knew how to get wide support from other ARVN officers. They gained the support of Generals Ton That Dinh, Đỗ Cao Trí, and Nguyễn Khánh, who commanded different army corps. Only General Huỳnh Văn Cao remained loyal to Diệm.

On November 1, 1963, Conein put on his military uniform and put three million Vietnamese money units into a bag for General Minh. Conein then called the CIA station and gave a signal that the planned coup against President Diệm was about to start. Minh and his co-conspirators quickly overthrew the government. Only the palace guard was left to defend Diệm and his younger brother Nhu. The generals called the palace, offering Diệm exile if he surrendered. That evening, however, Diệm and his group escaped through an underground passage to Cha Tam Catholic Church in Cholon. They were captured there the next morning. On November 2, 1963, the brothers were killed together in the back of an armored vehicle by Captain Nguyễn Văn Nhung. This was done under orders from Minh while they were on their way to the Vietnamese Joint General Staff headquarters. Diệm was buried in an unmarked grave in a cemetery next to the US Ambassador's house.

Aftermath and Legacy

When Ho Chi Minh learned of Diệm's overthrow and death, he reportedly said: "I can scarcely believe the Americans would be so stupid."

After Diệm's assassination, South Vietnam struggled to establish a stable government. Several coups took place after his death. While the United States continued to influence South Vietnam's government, the assassination helped North Vietnam portray the South Vietnamese as "supporters of colonialism."

Diệm's assassination led to the collapse of his government and the end of the first Republic of Vietnam. However, his contributions during his nine years in power (1954 to 1963) can be recognized. He helped resolve the issue of northern refugees, established and strengthened his government, brought the religious groups under control, and brought peace to the country. Diệm stabilized an independent South Vietnam, which had suffered during the First Indochina War. He built a relatively stable government in Saigon in the late 1950s. The stability and security he created allowed for economic recovery and the development of education in South Vietnam. This provided educated people to serve the nation.

According to some historians, Diệm was first and foremost a Vietnamese nationalist. He was cautious about relying too much on America and "feared the Americans almost as much as the Communist rebels." Diệm often disagreed with his American advisors on policies. He had a very different understanding of democracy and Catholic values compared to Western ideas. Some argue that while Diệm's rule was strong, it was necessary given the difficult situation in the South. The South Vietnamese army gradually gained experience and skill under Diệm's command. His assassination changed the course of the war in favor of the North. The governments that followed proved ineffective and unable to successfully resist Viet Cong advances. Other historians suggest that Diệm was largely independent from the United States. They question the idea that Diệm was an overly strong or corrupt leader, or that his main goal was just to increase his family's power.

Honours

National honours

•  South Vietnam:
  • Grand Cross and Grand Master of the National Order of Vietnam

Foreign honours

Taiwanese President Chiang Kai-shek presenting the Order of Brilliant Jade to Diệm

•  Malaya:
  • Honorary Recipient of the Order of the Crown of the Realm (D.M.N.(K)), 1960
•  Philippines:
  • Grand Collar of the Order of Sikatuna, 13 October 1956
•  Cambodia:
  • Grand Cross of the Royal Order of Cambodia
•  South Korea:
  • Order of Merit for National Foundation
•  Thailand
  • Order of Chula Chom Klao
•  Australia
  • Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St. Michael and St. George, 1957
•  Taiwan
  • Order of Brilliant Jade, 1960

See also

In Spanish: Ngô Đình Diệm para niños