Otto the Great facts for kids
Otto the Great was a powerful ruler who became King of East Francia in 936 and Holy Roman Emperor in 962. He was born on November 23, 912, the oldest son of King Henry the Fowler and Matilda of Ringelheim. Otto continued his father's work of uniting the German tribes into one strong kingdom. He made the king's power much stronger, reducing the power of the local dukes. Otto did this by arranging marriages for his family members and appointing loyal people to important positions. He also changed the Church in Germany to help strengthen his royal authority.
After putting down a civil war among rebellious dukes, Otto achieved a major victory. He defeated the Magyars (Hungarians) at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955. This battle stopped the Hungarian invasions into Western Europe. This victory made Otto famous as a protector of Christianity. By 961, Otto had also conquered the Kingdom of Italy. Following the example of Charlemagne, Otto was crowned Emperor in Rome in 962 by Pope John XII.
Otto's later years involved disagreements with the Pope and efforts to keep control over Italy. He tried to improve relations with the Byzantine Empire, which was another powerful empire in the East. To make peace, Otto's son, Otto II, married the Byzantine princess Theophanu in 972. Otto returned to Germany in August 972 and died in May 973. His son, Otto II, became the next ruler. Otto is remembered as a very successful ruler and a great military leader. His rule helped start a period of artistic and cultural growth called the "Ottonian Renaissance."
Contents
Early Life and Family
Otto was born on November 23, 912. His father was Henry the Fowler, the Duke of Saxony, and his mother was Matilda. Otto had four full siblings: Hedwig, Gerberga, Henry, and Bruno.
How His Father Became King
On December 23, 918, King Conrad I of East Francia died. Before he died, Conrad asked his brother to offer the crown to Otto's father, Henry. Even though Henry and Conrad had disagreed in the past, Henry was chosen as king by the nobles in May 919. This was important because, for the first time, a Saxon became king instead of a Frank.
Some dukes, like Arnulf of Bavaria, did not want Henry as king. But Henry defeated Arnulf and made him accept his rule. Bavaria was allowed to keep some independence.
Becoming the Next King
.jpg)
Otto first gained military experience fighting against Slavic tribes on the eastern border of the German kingdom. In 929, his son William was born. Around this time, Otto was first called "king" in a document, showing his father was preparing him to take over.
To strengthen his kingdom, Henry wanted an alliance with England. King Æthelstan of England sent two of his half-sisters, and Henry chose Eadgyth to marry Otto. They were married in 930.
Before Henry died, a meeting of nobles in Erfurt formally approved Otto as the only heir. This was different from old traditions where all sons would get a part of the kingdom.
Otto's Time as King
His Coronation
Henry the Fowler died on July 2, 936. Otto, who was almost 24, became Duke of Saxony and King of Germany. His coronation was held on August 7, 936, in Aachen, a city important to Charlemagne. Otto wore Frankish clothes to show he was the true successor to Charlemagne.
At the coronation feast, the four main dukes of the kingdom served Otto. This showed that they accepted him as their king and were willing to follow his rule.
However, Otto's younger brother Henry also wanted the throne. Their mother had even preferred Henry because he was born after their father became king. Otto also faced opposition from local nobles who were unhappy with his decisions.
Rebellions Against Otto
In 937, Duke Eberhard of Bavaria rebelled against Otto. Otto defeated him and exiled him, appointing a new duke who would accept Otto's authority.
Otto also had a dispute with Duke Eberhard of Franconia. Eberhard had attacked a noble who refused to obey a non-Saxon ruler. Otto made Eberhard pay a fine, which angered him. Eberhard then joined Otto's half-brother Thankmar and other nobles in a rebellion in 938. Otto quickly put down this revolt. Thankmar was killed, and Eberhard was pardoned after a short exile.
War in France
Eberhard soon planned another rebellion, promising to help Otto's brother Henry become king. Gilbert, Duke of Lorraine, also joined them. Otto's brother Henry fled to King Louis IV of West Francia, who joined the rebels. Otto allied with Louis's rival, Hugh the Great.
Otto's forces defeated Eberhard and Gilbert at the Battle of Andernach in 939. Eberhard was killed, and Gilbert drowned. Henry surrendered to Otto, ending the rebellion. Otto then made peace with Louis IV, who recognized Otto's rule over Lorraine. Otto also arranged for his sister Gerberga, Gilbert's widow, to marry Louis IV.
In 940, Otto and Henry made peace. Henry returned to East Francia, and Otto made him the new Duke of Lorraine. However, Henry still wanted the German throne and planned to assassinate Otto in 941. Otto discovered the plot and arrested the conspirators. He later pardoned them after they publicly showed their regret.
Strengthening His Power
For the next ten years (941-951), Otto had strong control over his kingdom. He appointed people to important positions based on their loyalty to him, not their family background. He believed he had a "divine right" to rule, meaning God had chosen him. This was different from his father, who saw himself as "first among equals" among the dukes.
Otto's new policies made him the undisputed master of the kingdom. Rebellious nobles were usually pardoned after surrendering, but commoners were treated more harshly. Otto used family connections to strengthen his rule. His son Liudolf married the daughter of the Duke of Swabia, and his brother Henry became Duke of Bavaria. These marriages helped tie the powerful dukes to the royal family.
In 946, Otto's wife Eadgyth died. Otto then made arrangements for his son Liudolf to be his successor. He had all the leading nobles swear an oath of loyalty to Liudolf.
Expanding into Italy
The Italian Throne Dispute
After the death of Emperor Charles the Fat in 888, Charlemagne's empire was divided. The Kingdom of Italy was one of these parts. The title of "Emperor" was given to Italian kings by the Pope, but these emperors had no power north of the Alps. After the last emperor died in 924, the title was unclaimed.
Various rulers fought for control of Italy. By 948, Lothair was the nominal king, but Berengar II held the real power. When Lothair died in 950, Berengar II crowned himself king. He tried to force Lothair's widow, Adelaide, to marry his son. Adelaide refused and was imprisoned. She escaped and asked Otto for help and marriage. Marrying Adelaide would strengthen Otto's claim to the Italian throne and the imperial title. Otto agreed and prepared to go to Italy.
First Italian Expedition
In 951, Otto's son Liudolf invaded northern Italy, but he found no support. Otto then marched into Italy in September 951. Berengar II's armies retreated, and Otto entered Pavia, the capital, without a fight. On October 10, Otto was crowned with the Iron Crown of the Lombards, becoming King of Italy. He then married Adelaide.
Otto had to return to Germany due to problems there, leaving his son-in-law Conrad in charge of Italy. Conrad tried to make a peace treaty with Berengar II, where Berengar would remain king but recognize Otto as his overlord.
However, Adelaide and Otto's brother Henry did not like this treaty. They wanted Berengar II removed. Otto decided to discuss the matter at a meeting of nobles. In August 952, at Augsburg, Berengar II and his son were forced to swear loyalty to Otto. Otto allowed Berengar to remain King of Italy but made him pay a large annual tribute and give up some territory. This territory was given to Henry, making Bavaria the most powerful duchy in Germany.
Working with the Catholic Church
Otto used the Catholic Church to help him rule. He appointed bishops and abbots to important government positions instead of hereditary nobles. This helped him control the powerful princes, because when a church official died, their office and lands returned to the king. Otto often appointed his own relatives and loyal clerks to these positions.
His brother Bruno became Archbishop of Cologne and Duke of Lorraine. Otto gave land and special rights to bishops and abbeys, making them powerful and loyal to him. This system helped Otto strengthen his central authority over the kingdom.
Liudolf's Civil War
Rebellion Against Otto
Liudolf, Otto's son, was unhappy after his father's Italian campaign and marriage to Adelaide. He felt betrayed and believed Otto was being controlled by his new wife and ambitious brother Henry. Liudolf and his brother-in-law Conrad, Duke of Lorraine, started a rebellion in 952.
Rumors spread that Otto might name a younger son, born to Adelaide, as his heir instead of Liudolf. This angered many nobles, who joined the rebellion. Liudolf and Conrad first attacked Henry, Duke of Bavaria, who was unpopular.
Otto went to Mainz, where Archbishop Frederick tried to mediate peace. Otto left with a treaty that seemed to favor the rebels. However, when Otto returned to Saxony, Adelaide and Henry persuaded him to cancel the treaty. Otto then declared Liudolf and Conrad outlaws.
Otto's actions caused Swabia and Franconia to rebel. Otto besieged Liudolf and Conrad in Mainz for two months. The rebellion spread, and Otto faced a serious challenge to his rule.
Ending the Rebellion
In early 954, while Germany was in civil war, the Slavs and Hungarians invaded. Liudolf and Conrad made peace with the Hungarians, even giving them gifts. Otto's brother Henry spread rumors that the rebels had invited the Hungarians, turning public opinion against Liudolf and Conrad.
Conrad and Archbishop Frederick began peace talks with Otto. A truce was called, and at a meeting in June 954, Conrad and Frederick made peace with Otto. However, Henry again accused Liudolf of working with the Hungarians, causing Liudolf to leave and continue the war.
Liudolf retreated to Regensburg, where Otto besieged him. After two months, Liudolf sought peace. Otto demanded unconditional surrender. Liudolf eventually agreed to accept any punishment.
Archbishop Frederick died in October 954. In December 954, Otto held a meeting of nobles. Liudolf and Conrad declared their loyalty to Otto and gave up their territories. Otto did not restore their ducal titles but allowed them to keep their private lands. Otto appointed new dukes: Burchard III for Swabia, Bruno for Lorraine, and Henry was confirmed as Duke of Bavaria. Otto's son William became Archbishop of Mainz. Otto kept direct control over Saxony and Franconia. This ended the two-year civil war, strengthening Otto's power as the absolute ruler of Germany.
Hungarian Invasions
The Hungarians invaded Germany during Liudolf's civil war, causing much damage in Bavaria and Franconia. Encouraged by their success, they invaded again in spring 955. Otto's army, no longer fighting a civil war, was ready. The Hungarians sent a fake ambassador for peace, but Otto's brother Henry warned him that the main Hungarian army had crossed into Bavaria and was besieging Augsburg.
Otto gathered his army and marched south. He fought the Hungarian force on August 10, 955, at the Battle of Lechfeld. Otto's army, though outnumbered, was determined. They fought the Hungarians in close combat, preventing them from using their usual hit-and-run tactics. The Hungarians suffered heavy losses and were forced to retreat.
After this victory, Otto was called "Father of the Fatherland" and "Emperor." The battle ended nearly 100 years of Hungarian invasions into Western Europe.
While Otto was fighting the Hungarians, Slavic tribes in the north rebelled. Otto quickly moved north and defeated them at the Battle of Recknitz on October 16, 955. Hundreds of captured Slavs were executed.
These victories at Lechfeld and Recknitz were a turning point for Otto. They secured his power over Germany, and the duchies were now firmly under his control. From 955 onwards, Otto faced no more rebellions and was able to strengthen his position across Central Europe.
Otto's son-in-law Conrad was killed at Lechfeld, and his brother Henry I died a few months later from wounds. Otto appointed Henry's four-year-old son, Henry II, as the new Duke of Bavaria, with his mother as regent. Otto's son Liudolf died of fever in 957. With these deaths, Otto's two young sons with Adelaide also died. Otto's third son with Adelaide, the two-year-old Otto II, became the new heir.
Becoming Emperor
Second Italian Expedition and Imperial Coronation
2.JPG)
After Liudolf's death, Berengar II of Italy became rebellious again. He attacked the Papal States and Rome. In autumn 960, Pope John XII asked Otto for help. Other Italian leaders also appealed to Otto.
The Pope agreed to crown Otto as Emperor. In May 961, Otto named his six-year-old son, Otto II, as co-ruler and had him crowned at Aachen. Otto left his son in Germany with his brother Bruno and illegitimate son William as regents.
Otto's army entered northern Italy in August 961. He reached Pavia and celebrated Christmas, taking the title "King of Italy." Berengar II's armies avoided battle. Otto arrived in Rome on January 31, 962. Three days later, on February 2, he was crowned Emperor by Pope John XII at Old St. Peter's Basilica. Otto's wife Adelaide was also crowned empress. With this, the kingdoms of Germany and Italy were united into what would later be called the Holy Roman Empire.
Working with the Pope
On February 12, 962, Otto and Pope John XII held a meeting in Rome. The Pope approved Otto's plan to establish the Archdiocese of Magdeburg, which Otto wanted to create to celebrate his victory over the Hungarians and to help convert the Slavs to Christianity.
.Magdeburger_Reiter_edit.jpg)
The next day, Otto and John XII signed an agreement called the Diploma Ottonianum. This document confirmed John XII as the Church's spiritual leader and Otto as its protector. Otto recognized the Pope's control over the Papal States and even expanded them. However, the agreement also stated that the Pope-elect had to swear loyalty to the Emperor before being confirmed. This gave the Emperor power over the Pope.
After signing the Diploma, Otto marched against Berengar II, who surrendered in 963. But Pope John XII soon became afraid of Otto's growing power. He started to secretly negotiate with Berengar II's son, Adalbert, to remove Otto. Otto discovered the plot, marched on Rome, and deposed John XII as Pope, appointing Leo VIII in his place.
Otto and Papal Elections
Otto sent most of his army back to Germany, thinking Rome was secure. However, the Roman people did not accept Leo VIII as Pope because he was not a cleric. In February 964, they forced Leo VIII to flee and restored John XII. When John XII died in May 964, the Romans elected Benedict V as the new Pope. Otto quickly returned to Rome, besieged the city, and forced the Romans to accept Leo VIII as Pope again. Benedict V was exiled.
Third Italian Expedition
Otto returned to Germany in January 965. His trusted commander, Margrave Gero, died in May 965. Otto divided Gero's large territory into five smaller marches, each ruled by a margrave.
Peace in Italy did not last. Adalbert, Berengar II's son, rebelled against Otto. Otto sent Burchard III of Swabia to crush the rebellion, which he did in June 966. Pope Leo VIII died in March 965. The Church, with Otto's approval, elected John XIII as the new Pope in October 965. John XIII's behavior made him unpopular, and the Romans imprisoned him. He escaped and asked Otto for help. Otto prepared his army for a third expedition to Italy.
In August 966, Otto made arrangements for Germany's government while he was away. His son William, the Archbishop of Mainz, would be regent for Germany. Otto then led his army into northern Italy.
Ruling from Rome
Otto arrived in Italy, and John XIII was restored to his papal throne in November 966. Otto punished the rebel leaders by executing them. Otto then stayed in Rome and continued to expand his empire south. This caused conflict with the Byzantine Empire, which also claimed southern Italy. The Byzantines also did not like Otto using the title "Emperor," believing only their emperor was the true Roman Emperor.
Despite the conflict, the Byzantines began peace talks with Otto. Otto wanted a Byzantine princess to marry his son, Otto II, to gain prestige and legitimacy. In preparation for this, Otto returned to Rome in winter 967 and had Otto II crowned co-Emperor by Pope John XIII on Christmas Day 967. Otto II did not have real power until his father's death.
In 972, the new Byzantine Emperor, John I Tzimiskes, sent his niece Theophanu to Rome. She married Otto II on April 14, 972. This marriage helped resolve the conflict over southern Italy. The Byzantine Empire accepted Otto's rule over some southern Italian regions, and Otto withdrew from Byzantine territories.
Final Years and Death
.jpg)
With his son's marriage and peace with the Byzantine Empire, Otto returned to Germany in August 972. In spring 973, he visited Saxony and celebrated Easter in Quedlinburg. At this celebration, Otto, the most powerful man in Europe, received leaders and envoys from many different countries, including Poland, Bohemia, Byzantium, Hungary, and Denmark.
Otto traveled to his palace at Memleben, where his father had died. He became seriously ill with a fever and died on May 7, 973, at the age of 60.
The transfer of power to his seventeen-year-old son, Otto II, was smooth. On May 8, 973, the lords of the Empire confirmed Otto II as their new ruler. Otto II arranged a grand funeral, and his father was buried next to his first wife, Eadgyth, in Magdeburg Cathedral.
Family and Children
Otto's father, Henry I the Fowler, founded the Ottonian dynasty. Otto I was Henry's son, Otto II's father, Otto III's grandfather, and Henry II's great-uncle. The Ottonians ruled Germany (later the Holy Roman Empire) for over a century, from 919 to 1024.
Otto had two wives and at least seven children:
- With an unidentified Slavic woman:
- William (929 – 968) – Archbishop of Mainz from 954.
- With Eadgyth of England:
- Liudolf (930 – 957) – Duke of Swabia from 950 to 954, and Otto's expected successor.
- Liutgarde (932–953) – married Conrad, Duke of Lorraine, in 947.
- With Adelaide of Italy:
- Henry (952–954)
- Bruno (probably 954–957)
- Matilda (954–999) – Abbess of Quedlinburg from 966.
- Otto II (955 – 983) – Holy Roman Emperor from 973.
Legacy
Ottonian Renaissance
During Otto's time and that of his immediate successors, there was a small revival of arts and architecture, known as the "Ottonian Renaissance." This period saw the growth of cathedral schools and the creation of beautiful illuminated manuscripts (decorated books). Important examples include the Diploma Ottonianum and the Gero Codex. Important convents, like Quedlinburg Abbey, founded by Otto in 936, were led by women from the royal family.
Modern World
Otto I has been featured on a special €100 commemorative coin from Austria, issued in 2008. The coin shows the Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire on one side and Emperor Otto I with St. Peter's Basilica in Rome on the other, where he was crowned. Several exhibitions in Magdeburg have also explored Otto's life and his impact on medieval European history.
Images for kids
-
Depiction of Otto on his seal in 968
-
Otto's signature
See also
In Spanish: Otón I del Sacro Imperio Romano Germánico para niños
