History of antisemitism in the United States facts for kids

Antisemitism means being against Jewish people. It's a type of prejudice or hatred. For a long time, people thought antisemitism wasn't a big problem in the United States. They believed it only appeared later in the 1800s. But more recently, experts have found that Jewish people have faced antisemitism throughout American history. The discussion about how much antisemitism existed at different times is still ongoing today.

The first time the U.S. government showed anti-Jewish feelings was during the American Civil War. General Ulysses S. Grant ordered all Jewish people to leave parts of Tennessee, Kentucky, and Mississippi. President Abraham Lincoln quickly stopped this order.

In the first half of the 1900s, Jewish people faced a lot of unfair treatment. They were stopped from working in some jobs. They couldn't rent or own certain homes. Many social clubs and vacation spots didn't allow them. Colleges also limited how many Jewish students they would accept. Antisemitism was at its worst between World War I and World War II. This was when groups like the Ku Klux Klan grew. Also, newspapers like The Dearborn Independent and radio speakers like Father Coughlin spread hateful messages.

After World War II and the terrible event known as the Holocaust, anti-Jewish feelings in the United States became much less common.

Early American History and Jewish People

In the mid-1600s, Peter Stuyvesant was in charge of the Dutch colony called New Netherland. He wanted to keep the Dutch Reformed Church strong. He didn't want other religious groups, like Lutherans, Catholics, or Quakers, to form their own churches.

The 1800s and Jewish Life

For most of the 1700s and 1800s, the United States didn't have the same level of antisemitism as Europe. Jewish people were seen as a distinct group starting in the 1870s. But this was often viewed positively, as they were considered white.

The Civil War and General Grant's Order

During the Civil War, Major General Ulysses S. Grant was influenced by negative feelings. He issued General Order No. 11. This order told all Jewish people to leave areas he controlled in western Tennessee.

The order said: "The Jews, as a class violating every regulation of trade... are hereby expelled... within twenty-four hours."

Grant later ordered that "no Jews are to be permitted to travel on the road southward." His helper, Colonel John V. DuBois, also told "all cotton speculators, Jews, and all vagabonds" to leave. He called Jewish people "an intolerable nuisance."

President Abraham Lincoln quickly canceled this order. But it had already been put into action in some towns. Lincoln stopped it because the government shouldn't single out any group for special treatment. This order was unique because it was the only official antisemitic action by the U.S. government.

New Arrivals from Eastern Europe

Between 1881 and 1920, about 3 million Jewish people from Eastern Europe came to America. Many were escaping violent attacks called pogroms. They also sought better economic conditions. These Jewish immigrants, along with others from Eastern and Southern Europe, came to work in mines and factories. Many Americans didn't trust these new Jewish arrivals.

From 1900 to 1924, about 1.75 million more Jewish people arrived, mostly from Eastern Europe. Before 1900, Jewish people were less than 1% of America's population. By 1930, they were about 3.5%. This big increase, and some Jewish people becoming successful, led to more antisemitism.

As more Jewish people came, many Americans started to see them as different. The U.S. government even listed Jewish people as their own race, "Hebrews," in the census. An effort in 1909 to remove "Hebrew" as a race failed. Some believed Jewish people were mostly in certain jobs, like clothing makers or store owners. Even "German Jews," who came from many countries, faced more social antisemitism. This unfair treatment became even more common in the 1900s.

Populism and Money

In the mid-1800s, some German Jewish immigrants started investment banking firms. These became important in the financial world. Most major Jewish banks in the U.S. were investment banks, not regular commercial banks. Even though Jewish people played a small role in everyday banking, the fame of Jewish investment bankers like the Rothschild family in Europe and Jacob Schiff in New York made some people believe antisemitic claims.

For example, in the 1890s, Mary Elizabeth Lease, a farming activist, often blamed the Rothschilds and "British bankers" for farmers' problems.

The Morgan Bonds scandal brought antisemitism into the 1896 presidential election. President Grover Cleveland had sold bonds to a group that included J. P. Morgan and the Rothschilds. This group then sold the bonds for a profit. People who supported populism used this to claim that Washington and Wall Street were controlled by international Jewish bankers.

Another antisemitic idea was that Jewish people were part of a secret plan to control money and the economy through a single gold standard.

Some historians say that populism used Jewish people to represent big business and city life. This made it easier to blame them for problems that were too complex to understand.

One expert, Richard Hofstadter, said that populist antisemitism was mostly talk, not action. It didn't lead to laws against Jewish people or violent attacks. However, he still believed it helped start much of the modern antisemitism in the United States.

Early 1900s and Discrimination

In the first half of the 1900s, Jewish people faced unfair treatment in many areas. They were discriminated against in jobs. They couldn't access certain neighborhoods or vacation spots. They were often not allowed to join clubs. Colleges and universities also limited the number of Jewish students and teachers they would accept. Restaurants and hotels that didn't allow Jewish people were called "restricted."

World War I and Unfair Blame

When America joined World War I, antisemites blamed Jewish people. They called them "slackers" (people avoiding duty) and "war-profiteers" (people making money from the war). For example, a U.S. Army guide said that "foreign born, and especially Jews, are more apt to malinger than the native-born." When a group called the Anti-Defamation League (ADL) complained to President Woodrow Wilson, he ordered the guide to be removed. The ADL also worked to show Americans how much Jewish people contributed to the war effort.

The 1920s and Rising Hatred

Antisemitism in the United States was at its highest point during the years between World War I and World War II. The rise of the Ku Klux Klan in the 1920s and hateful messages in newspapers and on the radio in the late 1930s showed how strong these attacks on the Jewish community were.

One reason for antisemitism in the 1920s was linking Jewish people to Bolshevism, a political idea seen as bad in the U.S.

New immigration laws passed in 1921 and 1924 were seen as partly anti-Jewish. They strictly limited the number of immigrants from Eastern European countries. These were the countries where about 3 million Jewish people had come from by 1920.

Unfairness in Schools and Jobs

Jewish people faced problems when they tried to get white-collar jobs or professional roles. Fields like banking, insurance, public services, medical schools, hospitals, large law firms, and university teaching jobs limited entry for Jewish people. This period of "polite" anti-Jewish feeling grew stronger in the 1930s.

Limits on Immigration

In 1924, Congress passed the Johnson–Reed Act. This law greatly limited immigration. The law didn't specifically target Jewish people. However, it meant that 86% of the allowed immigrants had to come from Northern European countries. Germany, Britain, and Ireland had the highest limits. This law almost stopped the flow of Jewish immigrants from Eastern Europe.

Henry Ford and The Dearborn Independent

Henry Ford, who founded Ford Motor Company, was against World War I. He believed that Jewish people started wars to make money from them. He said, "International financiers are behind all war. They are what is called the international Jew... I believe that in all those countries except our own the Jewish financier is supreme... here the Jew is a threat." Ford thought Jewish people controlled capitalism and didn't add value to society as bankers.

In 1915, Ford blamed "German-Jewish bankers" for starting the war. Later, in 1925, he said he opposed "the international Jewish money power that is met in every war." He believed this power had no country and could send young men to their deaths.

Ford read The Protocols of the Elders of Zion, a fake document claiming a Jewish plan for world control. He believed it was real. He published parts of it in his newspaper, The Dearborn Independent. From 1920 to 1921, the newspaper ran articles claiming Jewish financial control. These articles suggested Jewish people controlled America's money supply and the Federal Reserve System.

These articles led to accusations of antisemitism against Ford. In 1929, he signed a statement apologizing for the articles.

The 1930s and Hateful Voices

In the 1930s, antisemitic activists included Father Charles Coughlin, William Dudley Pelley, and Gerald L. K. Smith. Henry Ford's anti-Jewish ideas were still spread, even though the KKK was almost gone. These leaders spread many connected conspiracy theories.

Antisemitism grew a lot in the 1930s. People demanded that American Jews be kept out of social, political, and economic life.

During the 1930s and 1940s, some right-wing speakers linked the Great Depression, President Franklin D. Roosevelt's "New Deal" programs, and the threat of war to a made-up international Jewish conspiracy. They claimed this conspiracy was both communist and capitalist. They accused "the Jews" of controlling Roosevelt's government, causing the Depression, and pushing the U.S. into World War II. Roosevelt's "New Deal" was even called the "Jew Deal" in a mean way.

Father Charles Coughlin, a radio preacher, and other public figures spoke out against "the Jews." Gerald L. K. Smith, a minister, founded a group and published a magazine that said "Christian character is the basis of all real Americanism." Other antisemitic speakers included Fritz Julius Kuhn of the German American Bund, William Dudley Pelley, and Rev. Gerald Burton Winrod.

In the end, these antisemitic speakers didn't gain lasting popularity. The danger of Nazi Germany became clearer to Americans. One expert, Steven Roth, says there was never a real chance for a "Jewish question" to become a major political issue in America, unlike in Europe. He believes this was because America's political system was too diverse.

How Americans Felt About Jewish People

An advertisement from 1942 for a vacation spot in Connecticut. It states that the place is for Christian guests only.

A 1938 survey found that about 60% of people had a low opinion of Jewish people. They called them "greedy," "dishonest," and "pushy." 41% agreed that Jewish people had "too much power in the United States." This number grew to 58% by 1945. Several surveys from 1940 to 1946 found that Jewish people were seen as a bigger threat to the U.S. than any other group.

Charles Coughlin's Influence

The main person spreading antisemitic ideas was Charles Coughlin. He was a Catholic priest whose weekly radio show had 5 to 12 million listeners in the late 1930s. Coughlin's newspaper, Social Justice, sold 800,000 copies at its peak in 1937.

After the 1936 election, Coughlin started to support the ideas of Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini. He saw their ideas as a solution to communism. His radio shows became full of clear antisemitic themes. He blamed the Great Depression on a secret group of Jewish bankers. He also claimed Jewish bankers were behind the Russian Revolution.

Coughlin's newspaper, Social Justice, printed antisemitic writings like The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. Coughlin claimed that communism in Europe was a Jewish plot. In December 1938, his newspaper printed an article that was almost exactly like a speech given by Joseph Goebbels, a Nazi leader, attacking Jewish people, atheists, and communists.

On November 20, 1938, two weeks after Kristallnacht (a night when Jewish people were attacked and their businesses and synagogues burned in Germany), Coughlin blamed the Jewish victims. He said that "Jewish persecution only followed after Christians first were persecuted." After this speech, some radio stations stopped airing his programs. This made Coughlin a hero in Nazi Germany, where newspapers wrote headlines like: "America is Not Allowed to Hear the Truth."

In December 1938, two thousand of Coughlin's followers marched in New York. They were protesting changes to immigration laws that might allow more Jewish refugees from Hitler's persecution into the U.S. Donald Warren, using FBI and German records, suggested Coughlin received money from Nazi Germany during this time.

After 1936, Coughlin supported a group called the Christian Front. This group saw him as an inspiration. In January 1940, the FBI shut down the Christian Front. They found the group was arming itself and planning to create a "dictatorship, similar to the Hitler dictatorship in Germany." Coughlin publicly said he still supported the movement. His reputation was badly damaged.

After the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, groups against U.S. involvement in the war, like the America First Committee, faded away. People like Coughlin were seen as supporting the enemy. In 1942, Coughlin's bishop ordered him to stop his political activities and focus on his church duties.

Pelley and Winrod's Hate Groups

William Dudley Pelley started the antisemitic Silvershirt Legion of America in 1933. Nine years later, he was found guilty of trying to stir up rebellion. Gerald Burton Winrod, leader of Defenders of the Christian Faith, was accused of trying to cause disobedience in the U.S. Armed Forces during World War II.

America First Committee and Lindbergh

A group called the America First Committee was against the U.S. getting involved in the war in Europe. Famous people like aviation hero Charles Lindbergh were part of it.

Officially, America First tried to avoid looking antisemitic. They even removed Henry Ford as a member because of his clear antisemitism.

However, in a speech on September 11, 1941, Lindbergh claimed three groups were "pressing this country toward war": President Roosevelt's government, the British, and the Jews. He complained about what he called the Jews' "large ownership and influence in our motion pictures, our press, our radio and our government."

In his private writings, Lindbergh wrote that "We must limit to a reasonable amount the Jewish influence." He believed that if the number of Jewish people became too high, problems would always happen.

German American Bund Rallies

The German American Bund held parades in New York City in the late 1930s. People wore Nazi uniforms and carried flags with swastikas next to American flags. About 20,000 people heard the Bund leader, Fritz Julius Kuhn, criticize President Franklin D. Roosevelt. He called him "Frank D. Rosenfeld" and his "New Deal" the "Jew Deal." He also believed in a Jewish-communist conspiracy in America.

Refugees from Nazi Germany

Before and during World War II, the U.S. Congress, President Roosevelt's government, and the public were worried about Jewish people in Europe. But they consistently refused to allow Jewish refugees to immigrate.

A report from the State Department said that the U.S. accepted only 21,000 refugees from Europe. It didn't even fill its own strict immigration limits. The U.S. accepted far fewer Jewish people per person than many neutral European countries.

Some historians argue that the U.S. and its allies did almost nothing to save Jewish people. There's a debate about whether U.S. policies were against all immigrants or specifically against Jewish people. One official, Breckinridge Long, was described as being more against immigrants in general than just antisemitic.

The SS St. Louis Ship

The ship SS St. Louis left Germany in May 1939. It carried 936 Jewish refugees trying to escape Nazi persecution just before World War II. In June 1939, the ship was not allowed to let passengers off in Cuba. Then, President Roosevelt also refused to let the ship unload in the U.S. as it waited near Florida.

The Holocaust and U.S. Response

During the Holocaust, antisemitism in the U.S. limited what American Jews could do to help. It put them in a difficult spot. Antisemitism was very common in the U.S. in the late 1930s and continued to rise in the 1940s. Before Pearl Harbor, over a hundred antisemitic groups spread hate messages to Americans. Swastikas and anti-Jewish slogans were common. In 1944, a survey showed that a quarter of Americans still saw Jewish people as a "menace." Antisemitism within the State Department played a big role in why Washington was slow to help European Jews.

In 1943, Mississippi Representative John E. Rankin spoke in Congress. He talked about a conspiracy of "alien-minded" Communist Jews.

U.S. Government Policy and the Holocaust

Josiah DuBois wrote a famous report called "Report to the Secretary on the Acquiescence of This Government in the Murder of the Jews." Treasury Secretary Henry Morgenthau Jr. used this report to convince President Franklin D. Roosevelt to create the War Refugee Board in 1944. This report was the first government paper at the time to criticize America's quiet involvement in the Holocaust.

The report accused the U.S. State Department of not acting and sometimes actively blocking efforts to help Jewish people in Nazi-controlled Europe. It also criticized immigration policies that closed American doors to Jewish refugees.

The report was sparked by an event involving 70,000 Jewish people from Romania. They could have been saved with a bribe of $170,000. The Treasury Department approved the payment, and both the President and Secretary of State supported it. But from July to December 1943, the State Department and British officials created many problems. The report came from frustration over this event.

On January 16, 1944, Morgenthau and Paul gave the report to President Roosevelt. They warned him that Congress would act if he didn't. This led to Executive Order 9417, which created the War Refugee Board. This board included the Secretaries of State, Treasury, and War. The order, issued on January 22, 1944, stated that the government would do everything possible to save victims of enemy oppression who were in danger of death.

It's believed that 190,000 to 200,000 Jewish people could have been saved during World War II. But this didn't happen because of deliberate obstacles to immigration created by officials like Breckinridge Long.

The 1950s and New Groups

Liberty Lobby's Views

Liberty Lobby was a political group started in 1955 by Willis Carto. It was known for holding strong antisemitic views. Carto admired the writings of Francis Parker Yockey, who praised Adolf Hitler after World War II.

Late 1900s and Continued Issues

Recordings from the Nixon White House tapes showed that President Richard Nixon made many antisemitic comments during his time in office. For example, he blamed the anti-Vietnam War movement and the leaking of the Pentagon Papers on Jewish people.

NSPA March in Skokie

In 1977 and 1978, members of the National Socialist Party of America (NSPA), a Nazi group, wanted to march in Skokie, Illinois. Skokie had many Holocaust survivors. The town believed the march would cause problems and refused to allow it. They passed new rules requiring money deposits, banning military uniforms, and limiting hate speech. The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) helped the NSPA fight these rules in court.

However, the NSPA ended up holding their rally in Chicago in July 1978 instead of Skokie.

Antisemitism in the African-American Community

During the Crown Heights riot, marchers carried antisemitic signs and burned an Israeli flag. Afterward, Black and Jewish leaders worked together to improve relations in Crown Heights.

Surveys by the Anti-Defamation League since 1964 show that African Americans are more likely than white Americans to hold antisemitic beliefs. However, higher education levels usually lead to fewer antisemitic beliefs for all races. Still, Black Americans at all education levels are more likely than white Americans with the same education to be antisemitic. In a 1998 survey, 34% of Black people were in the most antisemitic group, compared to 9% of white people.

Other Antisemitic Ideas

In the early 1980s, some extreme right-wing groups tried to team up with left-wing anti-war activists. They wanted to protest government policies they both disagreed with, like U.S. military actions overseas and support for Israel. As they talked, some old right-wing antisemitic conspiracy theories started to spread into progressive groups. These included ideas about a "New World Order" or "Shadow Government" secretly controlling world governments. Antisemitic conspiracy theories were pushed hard by right-wing groups.

By late 1990, as protests against the Gulf War grew, some extreme right-wing and antisemitic groups tried to join left-wing anti-war groups. They started talking openly about a "Jewish lobby" pushing the U.S. to invade Iraq. This idea grew into conspiracy theories about a "Zionist-occupied government" (ZOG), similar to the fake The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The anti-war movement as a whole rejected these ideas from the political right.

The 2000s and Modern Antisemitism

Many in the Jewish community celebrated when Senator Joe Lieberman ran for Vice President in the 2000 presidential election. They saw it as a sign that antisemitism was declining in the U.S.

New Forms of Antisemitism

In recent years, some experts have talked about "New antisemitism." They say it comes from different groups: the political left, the far right, and radical Islam. This new form often focuses on being against the creation of a Jewish homeland in Israel. They argue that criticism of Israel is sometimes used to attack Jewish people more broadly. In this view, criticism of Israel and being anti-Zionist are often too strong or unique, and this comes from antisemitism.

A 2009 study found that antisemitism can be expressed as anti-Israel attitudes. The study showed that when people thought about death, they became more antisemitic and less supportive of Israel. It also found that thinking about death made people see Israel as very important, but not other countries. The study concluded that antisemitism causes hostility toward Israel, and hostility toward Israel can increase antisemitism.

Antisemitism on College Campuses

On April 3, 2006, the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights announced that antisemitism is a "serious problem" on college campuses across the United States.

One article compares antisemitism in modern American universities to antisemitism on campuses during the Nazi era. It suggests that support for anti-Zionist views encourages antisemitism on American campuses.

In April 2014, there were at least three cases of swastikas drawn on Jewish property in university dorms. In September 2014, there were two more cases of antisemitism on college campuses.

In October 2014, flyers were handed out at the University of California in Santa Barbara. They claimed "9/11 Was an Outside Job" and showed a large blue Star of David. The flyers linked to websites that accused Israel of the attack. A few days later, antisemitic graffiti was found on a Jewish fraternity house at Emory University in Atlanta. Swastikas were also drawn on flyers for a school event at Northeastern University.

A survey in February 2015 found that 54% of Jewish students had experienced or seen antisemitism on their campus. The survey included 1,157 Jewish students at 55 campuses. The most common source of antisemitism was "from an individual student" (29%). Other sources included clubs, classes, and student unions.

In October 2015, some cars in a parking lot at the UC Davis were vandalized with swastika drawings. A few days later, antisemitic slurs were found on a chalkboard at Towson University.

Nation of Islam and Antisemitism Claims

Some Jewish, Christian, and Muslim groups, along with experts, believe the Nation of Islam is antisemitic. They claim the Nation of Islam has changed the history of the Holocaust and exaggerated the role of Jewish people in the African slave trade.

The Nation of Islam has repeatedly denied being antisemitic. Their leader, Minister Louis Farrakhan, has said that the ADL uses the term "anti-Semitism" to stop any criticism of Israel and the actions of some Jewish people.

American Views on Jewish People Today

According to an Anti-Defamation League survey, 14% of U.S. residents held antisemitic views. The 2005 survey found that 35% of foreign-born Hispanic people and 36% of African Americans held strong antisemitic beliefs. This was four times more than the 9% for white people. The survey also showed that being born in the U.S. helped reduce this attitude among Hispanic people.