Seminole Wars facts for kids
Quick facts for kids Seminole Wars |
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| Part of the American Indian Wars | |||||||
 A U.S. Marine boat expedition searching the Everglades during the Second Seminole War |
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| Belligerents | |||||||
 United States |
Seminole Yuchi Choctaw Freedmen |
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| Commanders and leaders | |||||||
 Andrew Jackson (1816–19, 1835–37) Martin Van Buren (1837–41) William Henry Harrison (1841) John Tyler (1841–42) Duncan Clinch Edmund Gaines Winfield Scott (1836) Thomas Jesup (1836-38) Richard Gentry † (1837) David Moniac † (1836) Francis Dade † (1835) Zachary Taylor (1838–40) Walker Armistead (1840–41) William Worth (1841–42) Franklin Pierce (1856–57) James Buchanan (1857–1858) William Harney |
Osceola John Horse Holata Micco Josiah Francis Homathlemico † Garçon |
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| Strength | |||||||
| Peak: 40,000 Expeditionary: 8,000 | 1,500 | ||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||
| 1,500-2,000 | heavy | ||||||
The Seminole Wars (also called the Florida Wars) were three big fights in Florida. They happened between the United States and the Seminole people. The Seminoles were a Native American group who formed in Florida in the early 1700s. These wars started around 1816 and lasted until 1858. There were two short periods of peace between the fighting. The Seminole Wars were the longest and most costly wars for the United States among all the American Indian Wars. They cost a lot of money and many lives.
Contents
What Caused the Seminole Wars?
The Seminole Wars happened for several reasons. The main causes were land disputes, runaway slaves, and the U.S. government's policy of moving Native Americans.
How the Seminoles Formed
Long ago, the first indigenous peoples of Florida became very few after Europeans arrived. This was mostly because of new diseases from Europe. Later, in the 1700s, small groups from different Native American tribes moved into Florida. These groups came from the southeastern United States.
One group, the Yamasee, moved to Florida in 1715. They became allies with the Spanish. Other groups, like the Creek people, also came from areas like Georgia. The Mikasuki settled near what is now Tallahassee.
Another group of Hitchiti speakers settled in Alachua County. The Spanish in St. Augustine called these people Cimarrones. This word meant "wild ones" or "runaways." This is likely where the name "Seminole" came from. Over time, this name was used for all these groups in Florida.
Runaway Slaves and Early Conflicts
Many African and African-American slaves escaped from plantations in the Carolinas and Georgia. They found freedom in Florida. Some joined Seminole groups and became part of their tribes. They learned the languages and adopted Seminole ways. These "Black Seminoles" became important leaders.
The presence of these free Black Seminoles worried plantation owners in the U.S. They feared their own slaves would run away to Florida. This led to raids by white settlers into Florida to capture Black Seminoles. These tensions caused early fights between the Seminoles and Americans.
After the American Revolution, Florida was given back to Spain. But Spain had little control over the border with the U.S. American settlers started moving into Spanish Florida. This caused more problems and conflicts with the Seminoles.
The First Seminole War (1817–1818)
The First Seminole War began because of growing tensions and border conflicts.
The Negro Fort Incident
During the War of 1812, British forces helped Native Americans and runaway slaves in Florida. They built a fort at Prospect Bluff on the Apalachicola River. They gave weapons to the Seminoles, Creeks, and Black Seminoles. When the war ended, the British left the fort to the Black Seminoles and their allies. Americans called it the "Negro Fort." They worried it would encourage more slaves to escape.
In 1816, General Andrew Jackson told the Spanish governor that if Spain didn't destroy the fort, he would. Spain said it couldn't. So, Jackson sent U.S. troops to destroy it. In July 1816, a U.S. gunboat fired a "hot shot" (a heated cannonball) into the fort's powder room. The explosion killed over 250 people inside the fort, including women and children. After destroying the fort, the U.S. Army left Spanish Florida.
Attacks and Jackson's Invasion
American settlers continued to raid Seminole villages, killing people and stealing cattle. The Seminoles fought back. In November 1817, U.S. forces attacked Fowltown, a Mikasuki village in Georgia. This attack is often seen as the start of the war.
Soon after, Seminoles attacked a U.S. supply boat on the Apalachicola River. Most of the people on the boat were killed. When news reached Washington, General Andrew Jackson was ordered to invade Florida. He was told to pursue the Native Americans but not to attack Spanish forts.
In March 1818, Jackson led a large army into Florida. His forces included U.S. soldiers, volunteers, and friendly Creek warriors. They destroyed Seminole villages and farms. Jackson also captured the Spanish fort at St. Marks. There, he captured two Native American leaders and two British subjects, Alexander George Arbuthnot and Robert Ambrister. Jackson had the two Native American leaders executed without a trial. He also had Arbuthnot and Ambrister executed, claiming they helped the Seminoles.
Jackson then marched to Pensacola, the capital of Spanish West Florida. He seized the city and the Spanish fort there. He left an American officer in charge and returned home.
What Happened Next
Jackson's actions caused problems with Spain and Britain. Spain protested the invasion and stopped talks about selling Florida. However, Spain was weak and couldn't fight back. The U.S. Secretary of State, John Quincy Adams, defended Jackson's actions. He said the U.S. was protecting itself. He also offered to give St. Marks and Pensacola back to Spain.
Spain agreed and continued talks. In 1819, Spain signed the Adams–Onís Treaty, giving Florida to the United States. Britain also protested the execution of its citizens. But Britain decided not to start another war with the U.S.
In America, some people worried about Jackson's power. But he was very popular, and Congress did not punish him. The executions, however, remained a controversial part of his life.
Between the Wars (1821–1835)
After the U.S. took control of Florida in 1821, the Seminoles were still a concern.
The Treaty of Moultrie Creek
In 1823, the U.S. government wanted to move the Seminoles to a special area called a reservation. This reservation was in the middle of Florida. It was far from the coasts to stop them from trading with people from Cuba and the Bahamas.
The Treaty of Moultrie Creek was signed. The Seminoles agreed to live on the reservation and give up their other lands. In return, the U.S. promised to protect them. They also promised to give them farm tools, animals, and food for a year. The U.S. would also pay the tribe $5,000 a year for 20 years. In return, the Seminoles had to let roads be built and return any runaway slaves.
Moving to the reservation was hard. The Seminoles had to clear new fields. A long drought made farming difficult, and some Seminoles starved. Many Seminoles were unhappy and returned to their old homes.
Calls for Removal
Even though most Seminoles were on the reservation, some white settlers wanted them all out of Florida. The Seminoles did not want to move, especially not to join the Creek tribe, as some suggested. They saw Florida as their true home.
In 1828, Andrew Jackson became President. In 1830, Congress passed the Indian Removal Act. This law aimed to move the Seminoles and other tribes west of the Mississippi River.
The Treaty of Payne's Landing
In 1832, the Seminoles met at Payne's Landing. They signed a treaty saying they would move west if the land there was good. A group of seven chiefs went to check the new land. They signed a paper saying the land was fine. But when they came back to Florida, most chiefs said they were forced to sign or didn't have the power to agree for everyone.
The U.S. government said the Seminoles had three years from 1832 to move. So, they expected them to move in 1835. A new agent, Wiley Thompson, tried to convince them. But the Seminoles said they would not move.
President Jackson sent a letter saying, "Should you ... refuse to move, I have then directed the Commanding officer to remove you by force." The Seminoles still refused. Thompson then stopped selling guns and ammunition to them. Osceola, a young Seminole warrior, was very angry about this. He said, "The white man shall not make me black. I will make the white man red with blood."
Tensions grew. In June 1835, a fight broke out between whites and Seminoles over cattle. In August, a U.S. soldier carrying mail was killed. In November, Chief Charley Emathla agreed to move and sold his cattle. Other Seminoles saw this as a betrayal. Osceola killed Charley Emathla, scattering the money over his body. This showed that war was coming.
The Second Seminole War (1835–1842)
This was the longest and most costly of the Seminole Wars.
Early Battles and Guerrilla Warfare
On December 28, 1835, Seminole warriors led by Alligator attacked a group of 110 U.S. soldiers near Bushnell, Florida. Almost all the soldiers were killed in what became known as the Dade Battle. This marked the start of the Second Seminole War.
For the next few years, the Seminoles used guerrilla warfare. They used hit-and-run tactics, ambushing U.S. troops and attacking isolated farms and forts. They even burned the Cape Florida lighthouse. The U.S. Army struggled to fight in Florida's swamps and dense forests. Many soldiers got sick.
In November 1836, the Seminoles fought a large battle at Battle of Wahoo Swamp. They successfully pushed back 2,500 American forces. This victory boosted their confidence.
New Tactics and Captures
In late 1836, General Thomas Jesup took command. He changed tactics. Instead of chasing small groups, he focused on destroying Seminole homes, farms, and supplies. This was meant to starve them out. He also brought in many more troops, over 9,000 men.
In January 1837, the Army started having more success. Some Seminole chiefs, including Micanopy, agreed to surrender. But two important leaders, Osceola and Sam Jones, refused. In June, they led about 700 surrendered Seminoles away from a U.S. camp. The war started again.
General Jesup then used a controversial tactic. He captured several Seminole leaders, including Osceola and Micanopy, when they came for meetings under a white flag of truce. This was seen as a betrayal of trust. Osceola later died in prison.
The War Continues
Jesup's troops pushed the Seminoles further south into the Everglades. On Christmas Day 1837, Colonel Zachary Taylor's troops fought about 400 Seminole warriors at the Battle of Lake Okeechobee. The Seminoles were hidden in a swampy area. The U.S. troops attacked directly and suffered many casualties. The Seminoles eventually escaped across the lake. The U.S. claimed it as a victory, but the Seminoles showed their strength.
In February 1838, some Seminole chiefs offered to stop fighting if they could stay in southern Florida. Jesup liked the idea, but Washington said no. So, Jesup seized 500 Native Americans from the camp and sent them west.
By 1841, Colonel William J. Worth took command. He continued to search for and destroy Seminole camps and crops. Many Seminoles surrendered because of starvation. Some were captured when they came to negotiate.
The War Ends
Colonel Worth suggested that the remaining Seminoles be allowed to stay in Florida. The government agreed. On August 14, 1842, Worth announced the end of the war. The remaining Seminoles were allowed to live on an unofficial reservation in southwestern Florida.
The Second Seminole War was very expensive, costing about $40 million. More than 40,000 U.S. soldiers and volunteers fought. About 1,500 U.S. soldiers died, mostly from disease. Many Seminoles also died from fighting, disease, or starvation.
Between the Wars (1842–1855)
After the Second Seminole War, there was peace in Florida. The Seminoles mostly stayed on their reservation.
Growing Tensions
White settlers started moving closer to the reservation. In 1845, President James K. Polk created a 20-mile wide buffer zone around the reservation. No one could claim land there, and squatters were to be removed.
Florida officials still wanted all Native Americans out of Florida. The Seminoles tried to avoid contact with whites. In 1847, it was estimated that only about 120 Seminole warriors and 240 women and children remained in Florida.
Indian Attacks and Removal Efforts
In 1849, a small group of Native Americans attacked a farm and a trading post. Two workers were killed at the trading post. News of these attacks caused fear among settlers.
The U.S. Army increased its presence in Florida. General David E. Twiggs met with Seminole leaders. Billy Bowlegs, a Seminole leader, promised to hand over the men responsible for the attacks. He delivered three of them.
General Twiggs then told the Seminoles they still had to move west. The U.S. government tried three ways to make them move:
- They increased the Army in Florida to 1,500 men.
- They offered $100,000 in bribes to Native Americans who moved.
- They brought Seminole chiefs from the Indian Territory to convince them.
Some Seminoles agreed to move, but most refused. In 1850, three men suspected of the attacks were found dead in their jail cell. This made relations worse.
In 1851, General Luther Blake was appointed to move the Native Americans. He offered $800 to every adult male and $450 to every woman and child. He even took Billy Bowlegs and other chiefs to Washington, D.C., to meet President Millard Fillmore. The chiefs signed an agreement to leave Florida, but they changed their minds when they returned home.
By 1854, Secretary of War Jefferson Davis decided to force the Seminoles to fight. He stopped trade with them and started selling land in southern Florida to settlers. He said if the Seminoles didn't leave, the Army would use force.
The Third Seminole War (1855–1858)
This final conflict was short but intense.
Attacks and Responses
By late 1855, there were over 700 U.S. Army troops in Florida. On December 20, 1855, about 40 Seminoles led by Billy Bowlegs attacked a U.S. Army patrol near Fort Myers. They killed four soldiers and burned their wagons. This attack started the Third Seminole War.
Florida's governor called up volunteer soldiers. Seminoles continued to raid farms and settlements. In January 1856, they killed two men near the Miami River. They also attacked a wood-cutting patrol and raided coastal areas. They even tried to attack a plantation home called "Braden Castle."
In May 1856, Seminoles attacked Captain Robert Bradley's farm, killing two of his children. They also attacked a wagon train, killing three men. Mail and stagecoach service was stopped.
In June, a fight near Fort Meade killed three militiamen. Another fight along the Peace River killed two more. One of the Seminole leaders killed was Ocsen Tustenuggee, who had led many attacks.
New Strategies and the End of the War
In September 1856, General William S. Harney returned to Florida. He set up a line of forts across Florida. His plan was to trap the Seminoles in the Big Cypress Swamp and Everglades during the wet season. He hoped to catch them when they left the flooded areas for dry land. He also used special "alligator boats" to move troops through the swamps.
In January 1857, Harney ordered his troops to actively pursue the Seminoles. However, Harney and his troops were soon moved to Kansas. Colonel Gustavus Loomis took over. He continued to use boat companies, which were good at capturing Native Americans, especially women and children.
In November 1857, troops captured 18 women and children from Billy Bowlegs' group. They also destroyed Seminole towns and crops. In January 1858, another group of Seminole chiefs from the Indian Territory came to negotiate. They offered $500 to each warrior and $100 to each woman who agreed to move.
On March 15, Billy Bowlegs and his group accepted the offer. On May 4, 163 Seminoles were sent to New Orleans. On May 8, 1858, Colonel Loomis declared the war over.
Life After the Wars
When the Third Seminole War ended, the government thought only about 100 Seminoles were left in Florida. Some were still there, like Sam Jones' group in southeast Florida and Chipco's group north of Lake Okeechobee. Small family groups also lived deep in the swamps.
Since the war was officially over, the government sent the soldiers home. The remaining Seminoles avoided contact with settlers.
During the American Civil War, the Confederate government of Florida tried to get the Seminoles to fight for them. But the Seminoles were tired of war and stayed neutral.
In the 1868 Florida Constitution, the Seminoles were given one seat in the state house and one in the senate. But they never filled these spots. Later, a new constitution removed these seats.
Modern Times
A small number of Seminoles lived in isolation in the Everglades for many years. In the 1900s, flood control projects changed the environment. This opened up more land for development and tourism. Seminoles started working on farms and ranches. They also sold crafts to tourists.
In the 1940s, many Seminoles moved to reservations. They formed official tribal governments to work with the U.S. government. In 1957, most Seminoles formed the Seminole Tribe of Florida. They have several reservations today.
The Miccosukee branch of the Seminoles kept a more traditional way of life in the Everglades. They became a separate nation in 1962. They also have their own reservation lands.
In Popular Culture
- Black Creek: The Taking of Florida by Paul Varnes (2007) is a historical story about the First and Second Seminole Wars.
- Distant Drums (1951) is a movie starring Gary Cooper. It takes place during the Second Seminole War.
- Seminole (1953) is a movie starring Rock Hudson and Barbara Hale. It also takes place during the Second Seminole War.
See also
In Spanish: Guerras semínolas para niños
