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U.S. National Science Foundation
Agency overview
Seal of the U.S. National Science Foundation
Formed	May 10, 1950; 75 years ago (1950-05-10)
Headquarters	2415 Eisenhower Ave., Alexandria, Virginia, U.S.
Motto	Where Discoveries Begin
Employees	1700
Annual budget	$8.28 billion for 2020
Agency executives	Sethuraman Panchanathan, Director Karen A. Marrongelle, Chief Operating Officer Brian Stone, Chief of Staff Linnea Avallone, Chief Officer of Research Facilities Terry Carpenter, Chief Information Officer (CIO)

Logo used from 1999 to 2009

The U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF) is an important agency of the United States government. It helps fund basic research and education in many areas of science and engineering. The only field it does not cover is medical research. That is handled by the National Institutes of Health.

The NSF has a budget of about $9.9 billion each year. It provides money for about 25% of all government-supported basic research. This research happens at colleges and universities across the U.S. For subjects like mathematics, computer science, and economics, the NSF is the main source of federal funding.

The president of the United States chooses the NSF's director and deputy director. The United States Senate must then approve them. These leaders manage the NSF's daily work and budget. A group called the National Science Board (NSB) sets the overall rules. Its 24 members are also chosen by the president. The current NSF director is Sethuraman Panchanathan.

Discovering the NSF's Past

How the NSF Began

The U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF) started because of the National Science Foundation Act of 1950. Its main goal was "to promote the progress of science." It also aimed to improve national health, wealth, and defense. Over time, the NSF began to support more areas. These included social sciences, engineering, and science education. The NSF is special because it supports all non-medical research fields in the U.S.

Funding and Achievements Over Time

Since the 1980s, the U.S. Congress has believed that government-funded basic research is vital. It helps the nation's economy and keeps it competitive globally. This belief led to more money for the NSF. Its budget grew from $1 billion in 1983 to $8.28 billion in 2020.

The NSF publishes reports every year. These reports show how the agency is performing and how it uses its money. The NSF tries to get a high return on investment from its science spending. This means they want the research they fund to have a big positive impact.

Sometimes, there have been debates about how the NSF spends its money. In 1981, a plan tried to cut the social sciences budget by 75%. This was partly because Senator William Proxmire had given an award called the Golden Fleece Award. He gave it to the NSF for funding a study on why people fall in love. Even though the big cut didn't happen, the economics program budget did drop by 40%. Later, in 2012, a rule called the Flake Amendment stopped the NSF from funding political science research. This was unusual because the NSF usually decides its own research priorities.

How Many Projects Get Funded?

In 2020, the NSF received 42,400 research ideas (proposals). It funded 12,100 of them, meaning about 28% got money. In 2021, the funding rate was about 26.6%. The average grant was around $153,800 and lasted for almost three years.

NSF's Journey Through Time

Before World War II: Early Science Support

Before World War II, the U.S. government had about 40 science groups. But the country mostly let science research develop on its own. Universities got money for science from private donations. Industrial labs received some government funds, especially during Roosevelt's New Deal. There were worries that companies kept all the patent rights for inventions made with public money. This led to ideas like Senator Harley M. Kilgore's "Science Mobilization Act."

1940-1949: Debating a National Science Agency

During the 1940s, leaders realized that U.S. military power depended on strong science. Congress discussed ways to support science and engineering. President Roosevelt also created groups like the Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD) to fund war science. It took five years to agree on how to organize a national science agency.

This debate often involved Senator Harley M. Kilgore and OSRD head Vannevar Bush. Bush wrote a famous report in 1945 called Science—The Endless Frontier. He argued that government funding for science would bring better health, a stronger economy, and better defense. He suggested creating a new agency, the National Research Foundation.

Kilgore had a different idea. He wanted a strong, central research body. He believed it should support both basic and applied research. He also thought public officials, not just scientists, should control it. He wanted the public to own patents from publicly funded research. And he wanted research money spread fairly among universities.

Vannevar Bush disagreed with Kilgore. He thought scientists and experts should lead science policy. Bush worried that public interests would make science political. He believed scientists knew best what their fields needed. Bush wanted scientists to keep patent rights. He also wanted funding to focus only on basic research, not social sciences.

After many discussions and different bills, a compromise bill was signed by President Truman on May 10, 1950. This bill created the NSF. Many parts of the final NSF bill were similar to Vannevar Bush's original ideas.

Kilgore and Bush Proposals differed on five issues which were central to the larger debate (Chart reproduced)
	Populist Proposal (Harley Kilgore)	Scientist/Business Proposal (Vannevar Bush)	National Science Foundation Act 1950
Coordination/Planning	Strong Mandate	Vague Mandate	Vague Mandate
Control/Administration	Non-scientist members of the public: Business, labor, farmers, consumers	Scientists and other experts	Scientists and other experts
Research Supported	Basic and applied	Basic	Basic
Patent Policy	Nonexclusive licensing	No nonexclusive licensing	No nonexclusive licensing
Social Science Support	Yes	No	No

1950-1959: NSF's First Decade

In 1950, President Harry S. Truman officially created the National Science Foundation. He appointed Alan T. Waterman as its first Director in 1951. The NSF started with a small budget of $151,000. It later received $3.5 million from Congress, funding 28 research grants.

After the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1 in 1957, the U.S. worried about its science and education. Congress then increased the NSF's budget to $40 million in 1958.

In 1958, the NSF chose Kitt Peak in Arizona for the first national observatory. This allowed all astronomers to use advanced telescopes. Before this, most big telescopes were private. The NSF now helps fund several observatories, including National Optical Astronomy Observatory, National Radio Astronomy Observatory, and Arecibo Observatory. The NSF works closely with NASA on astronomy. NSF supports ground-based astronomy, while NASA focuses on space-based astronomy.

In 1959, the U.S. and other countries signed the Antarctic Treaty. This treaty set aside Antarctica for peaceful scientific research. The NSF was given the job of managing almost all U.S. operations and research in Antarctica. This is known as the United States Antarctic Program.

1960-1969: Growing Science and Technology

In 1963, John F. Kennedy appointed Leland John Haworth as the second NSF director. The "Sputnik Crisis" made countries compete more in science. This helped the NSF grow a lot. The NSF started programs to support research at entire universities.

Important projects during this time included creating the National Center for Atmospheric Research (1960). They also formed the Division of Environmental Sciences (1965). The NSF also took part in deep-sea exploration projects like Project Mohole (1961). By 1968, the NSF's budget was nearly $500 million.

1970-1979: Expanding Research Areas

In 1972, the NSF took over 12 research labs from the Defense Department. These labs brought together scientists from different fields. They worked together to solve complex problems. The NSF turned these into a network of Materials Research Science and Engineering Centers. Also in 1972, the NSF started publishing a report called "Science & Engineering Indicators." This report tells the president and Congress about U.S. science. In 1977, the first connection between different computer networks was made by DARPA.

1980-1989: The Rise of the Internet

During the 1980s, the NSF became more involved in connecting computer networks. This led to a system of internetworks managed by universities and government groups. By the mid-1980s, the NSF was the main financial supporter of this growing project. In 1983, the NSF budget went over $1 billion for the first time.

In 1985, the NSF sent ozone sensors to the South Pole. Researchers used them to measure ozone loss in the atmosphere. This was important because scientists had found a big drop in ozone levels. The internet project continued and became known as NSFNET.

1990-1999: Internet for Everyone and Big Discoveries

In 1990, the NSF's budget passed $2 billion. The NSF also funded new math teaching materials. These were based on standards from the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. There was a debate called the "math wars" about these new methods. Some people praised the NSF, while others criticized it.

In 1991, the NSFNET changed its rules to allow commercial traffic. By 1995, the private internet market was strong. The NSF then closed NSFNET, opening the internet for public use. In 1993, students at an NSF-supported center developed Mosaic. This was the first free web browser that showed both pictures and text. Mosaic quickly became very popular.

In 1994, the NSF, along with DARPA and NASA, started the Digital Library Initiative. Two students at Stanford University, Larry Page and Sergey Brin, got a grant. They used it to develop a search engine that ranked web pages by their links. This later became Google.

In 1996, NSF-funded research proved that the air above Antarctica was very unusual. It had high levels of chlorine, which causes the ozone hole. NSF researchers learned a lot about the ozone hole during this time. In 1998, two NSF-supported teams found that the universe's expansion was speeding up. They called the unknown force causing this dark energy.

2000-2009: New Frontiers and Rapid Response

The NSF joined other agencies in the National Nanotechnology Initiative. This project studies and controls matter at a tiny, atomic level. The NSF invests about $300 million each year in nanotechnology research. In 2001, the NSF's budget passed $4 billion.

A survey by the NSF showed that people liked science but didn't understand it well. In 2004-2005, the NSF sent "rapid response" teams to study disasters. They investigated the Indian Ocean tsunami and Hurricane Katrina. An NSF-funded team helped figure out why the levees failed in New Orleans. By 2007, the NSF requested $6.43 billion for its budget.

2010-2019: Continued Support and Partnerships

President Obama asked for $7.373 billion for the NSF in 2013. In 2014, the NSF gave quick grants to study a chemical spill in West Virginia. This spill contaminated drinking water for many people. In 2018, the Air Force and NSF started a partnership. They agreed to work together on research related to space, geosciences, materials science, and data science.

How NSF Funds Research: The Merit Review Process

The NSF mainly supports science by giving out grants. These grants are for specific projects proposed by researchers. Unlike other government agencies, the NSF does not run its own labs. Instead, it works with universities and research groups.

The NSF gets over 50,000 proposals each year. It funds about 10,000 of them. The projects that get funded are chosen through a "merit review" process. This process started in 1997. Independent scientists, engineers, and educators review the proposals. They are experts in the field and are chosen carefully to avoid conflicts of interest. For example, reviewers cannot work for the NSF or for the researchers who submitted the proposal. All reviews are kept secret. Researchers can see the reviews, but not the names of the reviewers.

There are two main things the reviewers look at. The first is "intellectual merit." This means how good and important the research idea is. The second is the "broader societal impact." This means how the research might benefit society. This second rule has sometimes been debated by scientists. In 2010, the National Science Board (NSB) looked at these rules. They decided both rules were important for the NSF's goals.

Most NSF grants go to individuals or small teams of researchers. They do their work at their own universities. Other grants fund larger research centers, instruments, and facilities. These are used by many researchers from different places. Examples of these national facilities include NSF's observatories with their huge telescopes. They also include research sites in Antarctica, high-tech computer facilities, and ships for ocean research.

Besides researchers, NSF grants also support science, engineering, and math education. This includes students from pre-kindergarten to graduate school. College students can get funding through summer programs called Research Experiences for Undergraduates. Graduate students get support through programs like Integrative Graduate Education Research Traineeships (IGERT) and NSF-GRF. Teachers from K-12 schools and community colleges can join Research Experiences for Teachers programs. The NSF also has a program called CAREER. It helps teacher-scholars who combine research and education in their work.

How the NSF is Organized

National Science Foundation's former headquarters in Arlington County, Virginia; in 2017, the foundation relocated to Alexandria, Virginia

The NSF has about 2,100 people working at its headquarters in Alexandria, Virginia. Before 2017, its main office was in Arlington, Virginia. The NSF is divided into four main offices, seven directorates, and the National Science Board.

About 200 scientists work at the NSF temporarily. They are called "rotators." They help manage the review process and find new funding opportunities. These jobs usually last 1-2 years.

NSF Offices

Office of the Director (the main leadership office)
Office of the Inspector General (checks for proper use of funds)
Office of Budget, Finance, and Award Management (handles money and grants)
Office of Information & Resource Management (manages resources)
Office of the Chief Information Officer (handles technology and data)

The NSF also supports research through other offices. These include the Office of Integrative Activities and the Office of International Science and Engineering.

Research Directorates: Different Fields of Science

The NSF supports research and education through eight main directorates. Each one covers several different science areas:

Biological Sciences: Studies living things, from tiny cells to whole environments.
Computer and Information Science and Engineering: Focuses on how computers work, software, networks, and artificial intelligence.
Engineering: Covers many types of engineering, like bioengineering, environmental systems, and electrical systems.
Geosciences: Explores Earth's geology, atmosphere, and oceans.
Mathematical and Physical Sciences: Includes mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, and materials science.
Social, Behavioral and Economic Sciences: Studies how people think, behave, and interact. This includes psychology, sociology, and economics.
STEM Education and Human Resources: Supports science, technology, engineering, and mathematics education at all levels.

A new directorate, the Directorate for Technology, Innovation and Partnerships (TIP), was created in 2022. Its goal is to help turn basic research into real-world solutions and products.

International Work: Connecting with Scientists Worldwide

Before October 2018, the NSF had three offices in other countries. These offices helped U.S. scientists work with scientists from Europe and Asia. The offices were in Brussels (Belgium), Tokyo (Japan), and Beijing (China).

Now, the NSF doesn't have permanent overseas offices. Instead, they send small teams to specific international research groups. These teams work for a short time to explore new collaborations.

Working Across Different Science Areas

The NSF also has projects that bring together experts from many different fields. These often involve working with other U.S. government agencies. Some examples include:

Nanotechnology (studying tiny materials)
The science of learning (how people learn)
Digital libraries (online collections of information)
The ecology of infectious diseases (how diseases spread in nature)

National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics

The NSF has a special group called the National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics (NCSES). This group collects data about science and engineering in the U.S. They gather information on scientists, engineers, and research spending. NCSES is one of the main U.S. government groups that collects statistics. It is part of the NSF's Social, Behavioral and Economic Sciences Directorate.