African-American scientists and technicians on the Manhattan Project facts for kids

The Manhattan Project was a top-secret effort during World War II to build the first atomic weapons. Many brilliant scientists and engineers worked on this project. Among them were a small but important group of African Americans. Their contributions were often kept secret, and they faced many challenges because of racial discrimination at the time.

The Manhattan Project and African American Scientists

What Was the Manhattan Project?

The Manhattan Project was a huge science and engineering program led by the United States during World War II. Its goal was to create the first atomic bombs. Major General Leslie Groves of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers was in charge. Work happened at over thirty secret locations in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Canada. Important sites included Columbia University in New York, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, the University of Chicago, Hanford, Washington, and Los Alamos, New Mexico. About 130,000 people worked on the project between 1941 and 1946. Their jobs ranged from construction to advanced physics. The project was incredibly secret. Few people knew its true purpose until the bombs were used.

Hidden Contributions

Even though they faced many difficulties, African American men and women made important scientific contributions. Their work was often hidden because of the project's secrecy and the structural discrimination of the time. Today, we recognize scientists like William Jacob Knox Jr., Lloyd Quarterman, Carolyn Parker, Robert Johnson Omohundro, and Jesse Ernest Wilkins Jr.. They helped understand nuclear physics, process uranium, use polonium for bomb parts, and create tools to detect radioactive materials. The small number of African Americans in these roles shows the unfair treatment they experienced. Conditions varied by location. For example, no African Americans lived at Los Alamos before 1947. In the South, like at Oak Ridge, racial segregation was very strict.

Life and Learning for African American Scientists

Education in a Segregated World

Where African Americans lived greatly affected their education and opportunities. In 1910, most African Americans lived in the Southern United States. Between 1916 and 1940, many moved to cities in the North and West. This was called the Great Migration. They sought better jobs and living conditions. A Second Great Migration followed, with more people moving for skilled jobs, often in defense. Educational chances were limited, especially in the South. In 1933, only 18% of Black students in the South attended high school, compared to 54% of white students. Segregated Black schools had fewer resources for science training. Northern schools offered more, but racism was still present.

Stories of Determination

The paths of these scientists show their determination. Moddie Daniel Taylor was born in Alabama and later moved to Missouri. He earned his Ph.D. from the University of Chicago in 1943. He then worked for the Manhattan Project at the Metallurgical Laboratory. Jasper Brown Jeffries from North Carolina attended West Virginia State College, a historically Black college. He later earned his master's degree in physical sciences from the University of Chicago in 1940. Lloyd Quarterman from Philadelphia got his bachelor's degree in 1943. He joined the project as a junior chemist. Harold Delaney, also from Philadelphia, earned his degrees from Howard University, another historically Black university. Brothers William Jacob Knox Jr. and Lawrence H. Knox were born in Massachusetts. Both earned Ph.D.'s before World War II. William faced discrimination at Harvard University but still earned his degree. He later got his Ph.D. from Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Lawrence earned his Ph.D. from Harvard in 1940. Jesse Ernest Wilkins Jr. was a child prodigy from Chicago. He entered the University of Chicago at age 13. He earned his Ph.D. in mathematics at just 19 in 1942. Wilkins taught at the Tuskegee Institute before joining the Manhattan Project in 1944.

Working on the Project

Facing Challenges and Discrimination

In 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 8802. This order aimed to prevent discrimination in defense jobs and government work based on race, religion, color, or national origin. This order opened doors for African Americans to work on projects like the Manhattan Project. However, they still faced segregation and unfair treatment in pay and housing.

Life in Secret Cities

At Los Alamos, New Mexico, a main project site, no African Americans worked as scientists or technicians before 1947. Oak Ridge, Tennessee, was another major site. White and African American workers lived in separate areas. These areas were sometimes divided by fences. Lower-level African American laborers lived in crowded, gender-separated "hutments." White workers had better housing options, and white couples could live together. Black couples were separated. Restrooms, water fountains, and dining areas were also segregated. Conditions for African Americans at Oak Ridge got worse as buildings aged. In 1945, a writer noted the irony: America was fighting for democracy but treating its own citizens unfairly.

Opportunities in Different Labs

At Hanford, Washington, the company tried to hire some African American workers to meet rules. However, they limited the number to about 10-20% of the workforce. Housing was also segregated and limited. Many African American workers lived in tents or shacks. At Columbia University in New York City, African American scientists and technicians worked on the project. William Jacob Knox Jr. was a research associate. He led the Corrosion Section, a very important role. His team developed ways to separate uranium isotopes using a special gas. This work was vital for the atomic bombs. The Chicago Metallurgical Laboratory at the University of Chicago offered more opportunities for African American scientists in higher positions. The university had admitted Black students since 1890. The lab director, Arthur Compton, supported hiring a diverse team. Many African American scientists at the Met Lab were University of Chicago graduates. These included Jesse Ernest Wilkins Jr., Moddie Daniel Taylor, and Jasper Brown Jeffries. Wilkins and Ralph Gardner-Chavis worked with Enrico Fermi on plutonium studies. Scientists from Europe, like Fermi, were often more open to working with African Americans. Wilkins later worked on neutron absorption and made important discoveries like the Wilkins Effect. When Wilkins' team was set to move to Oak Ridge, it was difficult for him to keep his high-level position due to segregation. Edward Teller then helped him find a role in New York. Jeffries and Wilkins later signed the Szilárd petition. This petition asked President Truman to warn Japan or show the atomic bomb's power before using it.

Amazing Discoveries and Inventions

The work on the Manhattan Project was very secret. But we know that African American scientists made big contributions. They helped understand nuclear physics and process Uranium-235, which was used in the "Little Boy" atomic bomb. A physicist worked with polonium, used in the "Fat Man" bomb. Others created tools to detect radioactive materials.

Key Scientists and Their Work

William Jacob Knox Jr., a chemist, joined Columbia in 1943. He became the head of the Corrosion section. This was a unique position for an African American on the project. His team developed ways to separate uranium isotopes using a gas called uranium hexafluoride. This complex process was key to making the atomic bombs. After the war, Knox became an expert in photographic materials. Chemist Lloyd Albert Quarterman worked at Chicago's Met Lab. He worked with fluorine, a very reactive and dangerous element. He designed a system to purify large amounts of hydrogen fluoride. This was used to separate Uranium-235 from uranium. He later helped design the atomic reactor for the first nuclear submarine. Physicist Carolyn Parker worked on the Dayton Project. She is believed to have worked with polonium to develop the "Urchin" initiator for the "Fat Man" bomb. She sadly died young from leukemia. Jesse Ernest Wilkins Jr., a physicist and mathematician, worked at the University of Chicago. He worked on theoretical physics and helped design the Hanford, Washington fission reactor. His discoveries include the Wilkins Effect and the Wigner-Wilkins approach for calculating how nuclear energy is distributed in reactors. He had an amazing career in science and engineering. Physicist Robert Johnson Omohundro used mass spectrometry to identify elements. He developed tools to detect and measure radioactive materials and radiation. His technology is still used today, for example, in airports to detect special materials.

Who Worked Where?

The Project's Lasting Impact

A Difficult Legacy

The Manhattan Project has a complex and difficult legacy. The "Little Boy" atomic bomb, made with Uranium-235, was dropped on Hiroshima. The "Fat Man" bomb, using plutonium and polonium, was dropped on Nagasaki. Most people working on the project did not know their work would lead to such destruction. But they knew they were helping the war effort. Some African American scientists, like Jasper Brown Jeffries and Jesse Ernest Wilkins Jr., knew about the plan to bomb Japan. They signed the Szilárd petition to try and prevent it. Others, like 17-year-old lab assistant James Forde, only realized what they had been working on after the news broke.

Different Views on the Bomb

African Americans, like other Americans, had mixed feelings about the atomic bomb. Some saw it as a terrible act. Others believed it was necessary to end the war. Some viewed it as a patriotic achievement. Some saw the inclusion of African American scientists in the project as proof that they deserved civil rights. They hoped it showed that racism could be overcome by science and reason. However, many Black leaders and newspapers criticized the bomb. They questioned if the Allies were fighting a "racial war" by using the bomb against Japan but not against European countries. Langston Hughes noted that "Japs is colored," highlighting the racial aspect.

Beyond the Project

After the war, African American leaders like Malcolm X, Martin Luther King Jr., and others protested nuclear weapons. They connected racial injustice, poverty, and war. Samuel P. Massie chose to work on the Manhattan Project instead of being drafted. He later had a great career as an organic chemist, researching treatments for diseases. His granddaughter has written about the challenge of understanding his choices from that time.

Images for kids

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  Blanche J. Lawrence

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  Benjamin Franklin Scott

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  Carolyn Parker

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  Cynthia Hall

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  Ella Tyree

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  Jesse Ernest Wilkins Jr.

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  Harold B. Evans

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  Herschel D. Wallace

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  Lloyd A. Quarterman

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  Phillip A. Sellars

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  Ralph Gardner-Chavis

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  Robert B. Pairs

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  Samuel P. Massie

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  Sylvanus A. Tyler

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  Virgil Trice

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  William Jacob Knox Jr.

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  Lawrence H. Knox