History of republican Egypt facts for kids
The History of Republican Egypt tells the story of modern Egypt from the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 until today. This period saw the end of the old royal family, the start of a republic led by a president, and big changes in Egypt's economy and politics. Many people felt that getting rid of the monarchy, which seemed too close to Western countries, made Egypt truly independent.
After the monarchy was officially ended in 1953, Egypt was called the Republic of Egypt until 1958. Then it was known as the United Arab Republic from 1958 to 1971 (which included a time when it was united with Syria from 1958 to 1961). Since 1971, it has been called the Arab Republic of Egypt.
Egypt's first four presidents were all from the military. This was because the armed forces of Egypt played a big role in the 1952 Revolution. These presidents led governments that had strong control, limiting political participation and freedom of speech. Under Gamal Abdel Nasser, Egypt had a socialist government. Later, under Anwar Sadat and Hosni Mubarak, the economy became more open to private business. In 2011, a revolution happened, and Mubarak was removed from power.
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Nasser's Time as President (1952-1970)
The 1952 Revolution
From July 22-26, 1952, a group of army officers called the Free Officers started the Egyptian Revolution. This group was founded by Gamal Abdel Nasser and led by General Muhammad Naguib. They overthrew King Farouk. The military blamed the king for Egypt's poor performance in the 1948 War with Israel and for not solving problems like poverty, disease, and illiteracy in Egypt.
Over the next two years, the Free Officers gained more power. After a short try at civilian rule, they ended the 1953 constitution. On June 18, 1953, they declared Egypt a republic, and Muhammad Naguib became Egypt's first President.
Within six months, all other political parties were banned. They were replaced by a government party called the "Liberation Rally." In October and November 1954, the big Islamist group called the Muslim Brotherhood was stopped. President Naguib was removed and arrested. Nasser then took his place. Nasser remained president until he died in 1970.
The revolutionaries wanted to end British control. They didn't have a clear plan for Egypt at first. But one thing many agreed on was the need for land reform. Before the revolution, a very small number of rich people owned most of the land. On September 11, 1952, a law was passed that limited how much land one person could own. It also set limits on rent for land and helped farmers form cooperatives.
Nasser became a very popular leader, not just in Egypt but across the Arab world. He promoted and put into practice "Arab socialism," which focused on government control of the economy and social welfare.
Suez Crisis and War
When the United States stopped selling military equipment to Egypt because Egypt stayed neutral regarding the Soviet Union, Nasser made an arms deal with Czechoslovakia in September 1955. Then, in mid-1956, the US and the World Bank stopped their offer to help build the Aswan High Dam. In response, Nasser took control of the Suez Canal Company, which was privately owned.
This led to the Suez Crisis. Tensions with Israel were also growing because of attacks from Gaza and Israeli responses. Egypt also supported the fight against French rule in Algeria and against Britain's presence in the Arab world. In October, France, Britain, and Israel invaded Egypt.
In 1958, Egypt joined with Syria to form a state called the United Arab Republic. This union lasted until Syria left in 1961. However, Egypt continued to be known as the UAR until 1971.
Nasser also helped create the Non-Aligned Movement in September 1961, along with India and Yugoslavia. This movement was for developing countries that didn't want to take sides with either the US or the Soviet Union during the Cold War. Nasser remained a key leader in this movement until his death.
Nasser ruled with strong authority but was very popular in Egypt and the Arab world. This was because of his socialist policies at home and his strong stand against foreign powers in the region. His willingness to challenge Western powers and Israel gained him a lot of support.
Six-Day War
In May 1967, Nasser closed the Straits of Tiran, which stopped Israeli ships from passing through. On May 26, Nasser said, "The battle will be a general one and our basic objective will be to destroy Israel." Israel saw the closing of the Straits of Tiran as a reason for war. In the 1967 Six-Day War, Israel attacked Egypt after claiming that Egyptian forces had gathered on Israel's border. The Egyptian, Syrian, and Jordanian armies were defeated by the Israelis. Israel took control of the Sinai Peninsula and the Gaza Strip from Egypt, the Golan Heights from Syria, and the West Bank from Jordan.
This defeat was a big blow to Nasser's reputation. After the defeat, Nasser offered to resign, but he changed his mind when many people protested and asked him to stay. The last three years of his rule were much quieter.
Education
Education greatly improved after the revolution. The Free Officers promised free education for everyone and removed all fees for public schools. They doubled the education budget in ten years. Government spending on education grew from less than 3% of the country's total income in 1952-53 to more than 5% by 1978. Money spent on building schools increased by 1,000% between 1952 and 1976, and the number of primary schools doubled to 10,000. By the mid-1970s, the education budget was more than 25% of the government's total spending.
Sadat's Time as President (1970-1981)
After Nasser died, another of the "Free Officers," Vice President Anwar el-Sadat, became president. He was not chosen through a democratic election.
In 1971, Sadat signed a friendship treaty with the Soviet Union. But a year later, he told Soviet military advisors to leave Egypt.
The 1973 War
In 1973, Sadat started the October 1973 war with Israel. Egypt's army had early successes in crossing the Suez Canal and advanced about 15 kilometers.
However, instead of staying under air cover, Egyptian forces decided to push deeper into the Sinai desert. They suffered huge losses, which created a gap in their forces. An Israeli tank division, led by Ariel Sharon, used this gap to enter Egyptian land and reach Suez City.
Israel was surprised by the attack but quickly got more weapons from the U.S. Arab oil-producing countries announced they would cut oil production by 5% and then more each month. This was to pressure Western countries supporting Israel until Israel left the occupied territories and Palestinian rights were restored. The UN, with support from the US and the Soviet Union, called for an end to fighting and for peace talks. For President Anwar Sadat, the war was a victory, even if it was a draw. The Egyptian successes brought back Egyptian pride and led to peace talks with the Israelis, and Egypt eventually got back the entire Sinai peninsula.
International Relations and the Camp David Accords
In foreign policy, Sadat also made big changes from Nasser's time. President Sadat changed Egypt's approach from fighting Israel to seeking peace through talks. After agreements in 1974 and 1975 to pull back forces in Sinai, Sadat made a big step by visiting Jerusalem in November 1977. This led to an invitation from US President Jimmy Carter for Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin to meet for talks at Camp David.
The result was the historic Camp David accords, signed by Egypt and Israel on September 17, 1978, with the US as a witness. These accords led to the Egypt–Israel peace treaty on March 26, 1979. Because of this treaty, Egypt got back control of the Sinai in May 1982. During this time, relations between the US and Egypt got much better, and Egypt became one of the biggest receivers of foreign aid from America.
However, Sadat's decision to make peace with Israel made most other Arab states angry. In 1977, Egypt also fought a short border war with Libya.
Domestic Policy and the Infitah
Sadat used his great popularity to try to make big changes to the economy. He ended the socialist controls that were in place under Nasser. Sadat brought in more political freedom and a new economic policy called the infitah, or "open door." This policy reduced government control over the economy and encouraged private businesses to invest.
While these changes created a wealthy upper class and a small middle class, they didn't help the average Egyptian much. People started to become unhappy with Sadat's rule. In 1977, the "open door" policies led to huge protests called the 'Bread Riots'. These happened when the government announced it would stop helping to pay for basic foods.
Sadat also brought back fair legal processes and banned torture. He broke up much of the old political system and put some former government officials on trial for bad actions during Nasser's time. Sadat tried to let more people take part in politics in the mid-1970s, but he later stopped this effort. In his last years, Egypt faced violence from people unhappy with his rule and from religious tensions. There was also more government control, including arrests without proper legal steps.
Mubarak's Time as President (1981-2011)
On October 6, 1981, President Sadat was killed by Islamic extremists. Hosni Mubarak, who had been Vice President since 1975 and an air force commander during the 1973 war, was elected president later that month. He was then re-elected for three more six-year terms. Most of these elections didn't have any other candidates competing against him, except for the 2005 vote.
Mubarak continued Egypt's commitment to the peace process started at Camp David. He also managed to convince Arab countries to start diplomatic relations with Egypt again and bring Egypt back as a leader in the Arab world. Egypt was allowed back into the Arab League in 1989. Egypt also played a calm role in international groups like the UN.
From 1991, Mubarak started a big economic reform program. This aimed to reduce the government's role in the economy and increase the role of private businesses.
During the 1990s, agreements with the International Monetary Fund and a lot of debt relief (because Egypt helped in the Gulf War) helped Egypt's economy improve. In the 1990s and 2000s, inflation (prices rising) went down. The average income per person, when adjusted for purchasing power, increased four times between 1981 and 2006. However, despite this, most Egyptians saw their living standards drop.
There was much less progress in political reform. In the November 2000 People's Assembly elections, 34 opposition members won seats out of 454. The ruling National Democratic Party (NDP) had a clear majority. A change to the constitution in May 2005 allowed for a multi-candidate popular vote for president, instead of just the People's Assembly choosing a candidate. On September 7, Mubarak was elected for another six-year term with 87% of the votes.
The opposition parties were weak and divided. The Muslim Brotherhood, founded in Egypt in 1928, remained an illegal organization and could not be recognized as a political party. However, its members were known publicly and spoke their views openly. Members of the Brotherhood were elected to parliament and local councils as independent candidates. Other opposition groups included Kefaya and the April 6 Youth Movement. Bloggers also played an important role in organizing and sharing opposition views.
President Mubarak had strong, autocratic control over Egypt. Support for Mubarak dropped, and more people became unhappy with his rule and economic reforms. This increased when news came out about his son Alaa being very corrupt and getting special treatment in government deals. After 2000, Alaa's influence lessened, and Mubarak's second son Gamal started to rise in the National Democratic Party. He brought a newer generation of people who supported free markets into the party and eventually the government.
Civil Unrest (2011-2014)
The 2011 Revolution
Starting on January 25, 2011, a series of street demonstrations and protests took place in Egypt. Organizers hoped the Tunisian uprising would inspire people to act. The protests reportedly began because of police brutality, special emergency laws, unemployment, a desire for a higher minimum wage, lack of housing, rising food prices, corruption, lack of freedom of speech, and poor living conditions.
At first, the protests mainly aimed to address these problems. But because the government's reactions were seen as too slow and not good enough, the demonstrations grew. The main goal became to remove President Mubarak's government. Many observers noted that the revolution didn't have a single leader; it was an example of "the wisdom of the crowd." On February 11, 2011, President Mubarak resigned, giving power to an interim military authority. The democratically elected president, Mohamed Morsi, followed Mubarak's resignation.
First Transition
The military's temporary government, led by Mohamed Hussein Tantawi, started reforms. A constitutional referendum was held, and a temporary constitution came into effect. Free parliamentary elections were held. A group was formed on March 26, 2012, to write a new constitution.
The first free presidential elections were held in March-June 2012. There was a runoff between former Prime Minister Ahmed Shafik and Muslim Brotherhood politician Mohamed Morsi. On June 24, 2012, Egypt's election commission announced that Morsi had won. On June 30, 2012, Mohamed Morsi was sworn in as Egypt’s new president.
Morsi's Presidency
On July 8, 2012, President Mohamed Morsi announced he was overturning the military's order that had dissolved the elected parliament. He called lawmakers back into session.
On July 10, 2012, Egypt's Supreme Constitutional Court of Egypt canceled President Morsi's decision to bring parliament back. On August 2, 2012, Egypt's Prime Minister Hisham Qandil announced his new cabinet. It included 28 new members, four from the influential Muslim Brotherhood, and the former military ruler Mohamed Hussein Tantawi as Defence Minister.
On November 22, 2012, President Morsi issued a declaration that made his decrees immune from challenge. It also aimed to protect the work of the assembly writing the new constitution. The declaration also required new trials for those accused of killing protesters during the Mubarak era who had been found innocent. It also gave the assembly two more months to finish its work. Additionally, the declaration allowed Morsi to take any steps needed to protect the revolution. Groups that supported liberal ideas and secularism had left the assembly because they believed it would force strict Islamic practices. Meanwhile, Muslim Brotherhood supporters backed Morsi.
This move was criticized by Mohamed ElBaradei, a leader of Egypt's Constitution Party, who said on Twitter that "Morsi today took over all state powers & appointed himself Egypt's new pharaoh." This led to huge protests and violence across Egypt. On December 5, 2012, tens of thousands of supporters and opponents of Egypt's president clashed in Cairo's streets. Six senior advisors and three other officials resigned from the government. Protests also happened in cities along the coast and in desert towns.
Morsi offered a "national dialogue" with opposition leaders. However, he refused to cancel a December 15 vote on a draft constitution written by an assembly mostly controlled by Islamists. This had caused two weeks of political unrest.
A constitutional referendum was held in two parts on December 15 and 22, 2012. It passed with 64% support and 33% against. Morsi signed it into law on December 26, 2012.
On June 30, 2013, on the first anniversary of Morsi's election, millions of protesters across Egypt took to the streets. They demanded the president's immediate resignation. On July 1, the Egyptian Armed Forces issued a 48-hour warning. They told the country's political parties they had until July 3 to meet the demands of the Egyptian people. The presidency rejected the army's warning, saying the president would follow his own plans for national reconciliation. On July 3, General Abdul Fatah al-Sisi, head of the Egyptian Armed Forces, announced that he had removed President Morsi from power. He suspended the constitution and said new presidential and Shura Council elections would be held. He appointed the Supreme Constitutional Court's leader, Adly Mansour, as acting president. Mansour was sworn in on July 4, 2013.
Second Transition
In the months after the military takeover, a new constitution was prepared. It took effect on January 18, 2014. After that, presidential and parliamentary elections were to be held within six months.
On March 24, 2014, 529 of Morsi's supporters were sentenced to death. On April 28, the sentences for all but 37 of them were changed to life in prison. However, nearly 700 other Islamists, including the Muslim Brotherhood leader Mohammed Badie, were sentenced to death. The trial of Morsi was still ongoing.
El-Sisi confirmed on March 26, 2014, that he would run for president in the presidential election. The election took place between May 26 and 28, 2014. El-Sisi won with 96% of the votes.
Sisi's Presidency (2014-Present)
In the elections of June 2014, El-Sisi won with 96.1% of the votes. On June 8, 2014, Abdel Fatah el-Sisi was officially sworn in as Egypt's new president. Under President el-Sisi, Egypt has strictly controlled its border with the Gaza Strip, including taking down tunnels between Gaza and Sinai.
In April 2018, El-Sisi was re-elected by a large margin in the election. There was no real opposition. In April 2019, Egypt’s parliament extended presidential terms from four to six years. President Abdel Fattah al-Sisi was also allowed to run for a third term in the next election in 2024.
Under El-Sisi, Egypt is said to have returned to a stronger government control. New constitutional changes have been made, which strengthen the military's role and limit political opposition. These constitutional changes were accepted in a referendum in April 2019.
In December 2020, the final results of the parliamentary election confirmed that Egypt’s Mostaqbal Watn (Nation’s Future) Party won a clear majority of seats. This party strongly supports President El-Sisi. The party even increased its majority, partly because of new election rules.
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See also
- History of modern Egypt
- Egyptian Constitution of 1923
- Liberalism in Egypt
- Terrorism in Egypt
