Turkish War of Independence facts for kids
Quick facts for kids Turkish War of Independence |
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| Part of the Revolutions of 1917–1923 in the aftermath of World War I |
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 Clockwise from top left: Delegation gathered in Sivas Congress to determine the objectives of the Turkish National Movement; Turkish civilians carrying ammunition to the front; Kuva-yi Milliye infantry; Turkish horse cavalry in chase; Turkish Army's capture of Smyrna; troops in Ankara's Ulus Square preparing to leave for the front. |
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| Belligerents | |||||||||
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Turkish National Movement: Also:
 Azerbaijan(1918–1920)  Aras Republic(1918–1919)  Iğdır National Republic(1918–1920)  Provisional Kars Government(1918–1919)  Green Army(1919–1920) Oltu Council Government(1919–1920)  Kurdistan(1919; 1921–1923)  Kurdish volunteers |
Allied Powers: Greece Armenia(in 1920) Istanbul Government(in 1920)
 Georgia(in 1921) Separatists:
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| Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
| Mustafa Kemal Pasha Mustafa Fevzi Pasha Mustafa İsmet Pasha Kâzım Karabekir Pasha Fahrettin Pasha Ali Fuat Pasha Refet Pasha Nureddin Pasha Ali İhsan Pasha Osman the Lame Ethem the Circassian (until 1920) |
Eleftherios Venizelos Leonidas Paraskevopoulos Constantine I Dimitrios Gounaris  Anastasios Papoulas Georgios Hatzianestis  Henri Gouraud Drastamat Kanayan Movses Silikyan Sir George Milne Mehmed VI Damat Ferid Pasha Süleyman Şefik Pasha Anzavur Ahmed Pasha Ethem the Circassian
Alişer |
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| Strength | |||||||||
| May 1919: 35,000 November 1920: 86,000 (creation of regular army) August 1922: 271,000 |
Dec. 1919: 80,000 1922: 200,000–250,000 60,000 30,000 20,000 7,000 (at peak) |
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| Casualties and losses | |||||||||
| 13,000 killed 22,690 died of disease 5,362 died of wounds or other non-combat causes 35,000 wounded 7,000 prisoners Total: 83,052 casualties |
42,335 killed or missing 4,878 died outside of combat 48,880 wounded 13,740 prisoners ~7,000 killed or missing 1,100+ killed3,000+ prisoners 500 killed532 prisoners Total: 117,087 casualties |
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| 264,000 Greek civilians killed 60,000–250,000 Armenian civilians killed 15,000+ Turkish civilians killed in the Western Front 30,000+ buildings and 250+ villages burnt to the ground by the Hellenic Army and Greek/Armenian rebels. |
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Notes
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The Turkish War of Independence (15 May 1919 – 24 July 1923) was a series of battles and a big movement by Turkish Nationalists. This happened after the Ottoman Empire lost World War I and was divided by other countries. The Turkish Nationalists fought against the Allied Powers and other groups who wanted to separate from the empire.
The war ended the long history of the Ottoman Empire. It led to the creation of the Republic of Turkey. This meant that power shifted from the Sultan (the ruler) to the people of the nation. This change set the stage for many new ideas and reforms in Turkey.
After World War I, the Allies started to occupy parts of the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman military leaders did not want to disband their forces. In this confusing time, Sultan Mehmed VI sent General Mustafa Kemal Pasha to bring order. Instead, Mustafa Kemal became a leader of the Turkish Nationalist resistance.
The Allies allowed Greece to occupy the city of Smyrna. This made tensions worse and started the Turkish War of Independence. Mustafa Kemal set up a new government in Ankara because the Ottoman government in Istanbul seemed to agree with the Allies. The Allies then pressured the Istanbul government to sign a treaty called Treaty of Sèvres, which was very unfair to Turkish interests. The Ankara government declared this treaty illegal.
Turkish forces fought against the French in the south. They also worked with the Bolsheviks (from Russia) to divide Armenia. This led to the Treaty of Kars in 1921. The fighting in the west was known as the Greco-Turkish War. İsmet Pasha helped organize the Turkish army. They fought important battles against the Greeks, like the First and Second Battle of İnönü. The Greeks won the Battle of Kütahya-Eskişehir and moved towards Ankara. But the Turks stopped them at the Battle of the Sakarya and then pushed them back in the Great Offensive.
The war ended when Turkish forces took back İzmir. An agreement called the Armistice of Mudanya was signed. The government in Ankara was recognized as the true Turkish government. They signed a new treaty, the Treaty of Lausanne, which was much better for Turkey. The Allies left Anatolia and eastern Thrace. The Ottoman government was removed, and the Sultan's rule ended. The Grand National Assembly of Turkey declared the Republic of Turkey on October 29, 1923.
The war also caused big changes in who lived where. Many people had to move from their homes. This included Greeks and Armenians leaving Anatolia, and many Muslim refugees moving into the area. This led to a more unified population in the new country of Turkey.
Contents
Understanding the War's Beginning
Before World War I, the Ottoman Empire faced many problems. A group called the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) took control in 1913. They wanted to make the empire stronger by focusing on Turkish identity. They reacted to losing land and seeing many Muslims forced to leave their homes in the Balkan Wars.
The CUP decided to join World War I with Germany and Austria-Hungary. During the war, many Christian groups, like Armenians and Greeks, faced great hardship. The Allies, who were fighting against the Ottoman Empire, accused the CUP leaders of terrible actions. They also had plans to divide the Ottoman lands after the war.
World War I was the end for the idea of a large, diverse Ottoman Empire. Many different groups now wanted their own independent countries. By 1918, the Ottoman Empire mostly controlled lands where Muslims lived, including Turks, Kurds, and Circassians. Many Greeks and Armenians still lived there but wanted to be free from the empire.
End of World War I
In 1918, the leaders of the Ottoman Empire realized they had lost World War I. Bulgaria, an ally, signed a peace agreement, which cut off communication between Istanbul (the Ottoman capital) and other allied cities. This left Istanbul open to attack.
The Ottoman government signed the Armistice of Mudros on October 30, 1918. This officially ended World War I for the Ottoman Empire. Three days later, the CUP party, which had ruled the empire, decided to break up. Its main leaders left the country, creating a power vacuum.
Many groups hoped to gain power after the CUP fell:
- The Sultan: The new Sultan, Mehmed VI, wanted to bring back the monarchy's power.
- The Liberals: A group called the Freedom and Accord Party hoped to work with the Allies.
- The Allies: Britain and France wanted to divide the Ottoman Empire into smaller areas they could control.
- Ethnic Minorities: Greeks hoped to join Greece, and Armenians hoped to join the new Armenian Republic. Some Kurds also wanted their own state.
- Former Unionists: Even though the CUP was gone, many former members still held important positions in the army and government. They would eventually gather around Mustafa Kemal Pasha.
The Start of Resistance (1918–1919)
Armistice and Occupations
The Armistice of Mudros in October 1918 ended the fighting. It said the Ottoman army had to reduce its size. A very important part, Article VII, allowed the Allies to occupy any area if they felt their safety was threatened. This rule was used to let Allied forces move into many parts of the empire.
On November 13, 1918, French troops entered Istanbul, starting an occupation of the capital. Soon, British, Italian, and Greek ships also arrived with soldiers. The Allies said this was temporary and meant to protect the Sultan and minorities. However, they had plans to divide the Ottoman Empire.
In the following months, the British occupied cities like Mosul. The French took control of areas like Adana. These actions made Ottoman military leaders refuse to disband their forces. They started preparing for more fighting.
Preparing for Resistance
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Mustafa Kemal Pasha was a well-known and respected general. He was ordered to return to Istanbul. Before leaving, he made sure to give weapons to local people. These weapons were secretly sent to Anatolia for future resistance.
Other commanders also refused orders from the Ottoman government. Ali Fuat Pasha gathered his troops and went to Ankara to organize resistance groups. Kâzım Karabekir Pasha refused to give up his strong army in Erzurum. Local groups called Şûrâs (councils) also formed to protest the Allied occupation.
The Armistice Period
Political Changes in Istanbul
After Istanbul was occupied, Sultan Mehmed VI closed the parliament. He wanted to bring back more power to the monarchy. Many Greeks and Armenians living in the empire declared they no longer wanted to be part of it.
The Sultan appointed Damat Ferid Pasha as the new Grand Vizier (like a prime minister). Ferid Pasha hoped that by cooperating with the Allies, he could get better peace terms. However, many former CUP members faced trials for their actions during the war. Many escaped before they could be caught.
Many Ottomans looked to the United States for help, hoping that American ideas of self-determination would keep Istanbul Turkish. However, the U.S. decided not to get involved in the Middle East, leaving the Allies to decide the future of the Ottoman Empire.
Challenges and Refugees
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The government in Istanbul also had to deal with many refugees. After the war, many Greeks and Armenians tried to return to their homes. But often, their homes were now occupied by Muslim refugees who had been forced to leave other areas. This led to more conflicts.
Many parts of Anatolia became very unstable. Soldiers who left the army became bandits, controlling areas of the countryside. There were also many refugees from the Russian Civil War passing through Turkey.
Mustafa Kemal's Important Mission
With Anatolia in chaos, Sultan Mehmed VI sent Mustafa Kemal Pasha to restore order to the army and improve security. He was sent to Samsun to deal with a rebellion by Greek groups.
Mustafa Kemal was a famous and respected general. He had fought bravely in World War I. This new job gave him a lot of power over the army in Anatolia. Even though he was supposed to restore order for the Sultan, Kemal had a secret goal: to lead a nationalist movement to protect Turkish interests from the Allies.
The day before he left for Samsun, Kemal learned that Greek forces had landed in İzmir. He and his team left Istanbul on May 16, 1919.
Plans to Divide the Ottoman Empire
In January 1919, the Paris Peace Conference began. Allied nations decided the peace terms for the defeated countries, including the Ottoman Empire. Italy wanted control over southern Anatolia, and France wanted control over areas like Syria and parts of southeastern Anatolia.
Greece also wanted Ottoman land, especially areas with large Greek populations like eastern Thrace and İzmir. The Greek Prime Minister, Eleftherios Venizelos, had the support of the British Prime Minister.
At the conference, there were disagreements between Greece and Italy over western Anatolia. To solve this, the Allies allowed Greek troops to land in İzmir. They said it was to keep peace, but it made ethnic tensions much worse.
Organizing the Resistance (1919–1920)
Greek Landing in İzmir
Most historians say the Turkish War of Independence began on May 15, 1919, when Greek troops landed in İzmir. The arrival of Greek soldiers was met with excitement by Ottoman Greeks and protests by Ottoman Muslims. A Turkish journalist, Hasan Tahsin, fired the first shot, and the city quickly became a battleground. Many soldiers and civilians were killed or wounded.
Greek troops moved out from İzmir into nearby towns. Soon, Turkish people in the countryside started forming their own irregular fighting groups called Kuva-yi Milliye (national forces). These groups included former Ottoman soldiers, local people, and even some bandits. The Greek army found itself fighting against these groups in a mostly Muslim area.
The Greek landing in İzmir made Turkish society very unstable. The Ottoman government in Istanbul condemned the landing but could do little. Many people in Istanbul protested the Greek occupation.
Building the Resistance Movement
Mustafa Kemal Pasha arrived in Samsun on May 19. He quickly started making connections with army units and nationalist groups across Anatolia. He sent messages protesting the British and Greek actions.
Mustafa Kemal believed he needed support from all over the country to fight the Allied occupation. He met with other important military leaders and issued the Amasya Circular on June 22, 1919. This message warned that the nation's independence was in danger and that the government in Istanbul was not to be trusted. It called for meetings (congresses) to be held in Erzurum and Sivas to decide on a plan.
The British realized what Mustafa Kemal was doing and tried to stop him. But his movement was growing strong.
Uniting Through Congresses
By early July, Mustafa Kemal Pasha received orders from the Sultan to stop his activities and return to Istanbul. He refused and resigned from his military position. He then sent a message to all nationalist groups, telling them not to give up.
The Erzurum Congress was a meeting of leaders from eastern provinces. They created the National Pact, which outlined new borders for the Ottoman Empire based on the idea that people should decide their own future. It declared that all regions within the Ottoman borders at the time of the armistice were indivisible. The congress also formed the Committee of Representation as a temporary government, with Mustafa Kemal as its leader.
After Erzurum, the Committee of Representation moved to Sivas. In September, a new congress was held there with representatives from all over Anatolia and Thrace. The Sivas Congress repeated the ideas of the National Pact and united all the different defense groups into one organization: the Anatolia and Rumeli Defence of Rights Association. Mustafa Kemal was chosen as its chairman. The congress also decided that the Ottoman Empire should not become a mandate (a territory controlled by another country) under the United States.
The Nationalist movement gained more and more support. The Ottoman government in Istanbul lost control over most of the country. In October 1919, a new Grand Vizier, Ali Rıza Pasha, was appointed. He agreed to hold new elections for the Ottoman Parliament.
The Last Ottoman Parliament
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In December 1919, elections were held for the Ottoman parliament. Many groups linked to the Turkish Nationalist Movement won. Mustafa Kemal was elected as a representative, but he stayed in Anatolia, fearing the Allies would arrest him in Istanbul. He and the Committee of Representation moved to Ankara to stay in touch with the new representatives.
The Ottoman parliament in Istanbul was largely controlled by the British. Any decisions had to be approved by the British commander. However, the parliament secretly endorsed the National Pact in January 1920. This angered the Allies, who then forcefully closed the parliament.
Two Governments: Istanbul and Ankara (1920–1921)
Allied Actions in Istanbul
The Allies were worried about the growing Turkish Nationalist Movement. On March 16, 1920, they raided Istanbul, arresting nationalist politicians and taking control of government buildings. Many Turkish leaders were sent to Malta.
Mustafa Kemal was prepared for this. He told all nationalist groups to protest these actions. He declared that the Turkish nation must defend its independence.
On March 18, the parliament in Istanbul declared the arrests unacceptable and dissolved itself. Sultan Mehmed VI confirmed this, ending the constitutional monarchy. The Sultan's government became a puppet government, controlled by the Allies. This allowed Mustafa Kemal to become the main leader of Turkish resistance.
The Grand National Assembly is Formed
After the Allies' actions in Istanbul, Mustafa Kemal called for new elections to create a parliament in Ankara. He asked for help from the Islamic world, saying he was fighting to free the Sultan (who was also the Caliph, a religious leader) from the Allies. Many supporters moved to Ankara.
About 100 members of the old parliament, along with 190 newly elected representatives, gathered in Ankara. In March 1920, they established the Grand National Assembly of Turkey (GNA). This was the first time "Turkey" was formally used as the country's name. On April 23, the GNA met for the first time, choosing Mustafa Kemal as its first Speaker and Prime Minister.
The Sultan in Istanbul issued a religious decree against the Nationalists, calling them rebels. But the religious leader in Ankara issued his own decree, saying the Nationalist Movement was fighting to free the Sultan from the Allies. The Istanbul government sentenced Mustafa Kemal and other leaders to death for treason.
Fighting in İzmit
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The Istanbul government found an ally in Ahmet Anzavur, a warlord who gathered Circassian fighters. The Sultan also created an army called the Kuva-yi Inzibatiye (Caliphate Army) to fight the Nationalists.
In April 1920, a rebellion supported by Anzavur broke out in northwestern Anatolia. In June, Nationalist forces fought against the Caliphate Army, Anzavur's groups, and British units near İzmit. Some of the Caliphate Army soldiers joined the Nationalists.
The British realized that defeating the Turkish Nationalists would require a very large army, which they did not have after World War I. They decided the best option was to use the Greek army, which was already in Turkey.
The Treaty of Sèvres
In August 1920, the Treaty of Sèvres was signed. This treaty would have divided the Ottoman Empire into many parts. Arab provinces would become new nations controlled by Britain and France. Other parts of the empire would be given to Greece, Italy, France, Britain, and Armenia. Istanbul and the Dardanelles (a narrow waterway) would be under international control.
However, this treaty was very unpopular in Turkey. The Ottoman government in Istanbul signed it, but the Ottoman Senate refused to approve it. Greece also disagreed with some of the borders. Other Allied countries, like Italy and France, soon started supporting the Nationalists.
In response, Kemal's GNA Government in Ankara created a new constitution in January 1921. This constitution stated that power came from the Turkish people, not the Sultan. This gave the GNA a legal reason to fight against the Treaty of Sèvres.
The Fighting Continues
Southern Front: Fighting the French
In the south, Turkish nationalist groups, called Kuva-yi Milliye, fought against French forces. They also received help from Syrians who were fighting the French.
The French wanted to control all of Syria and a region called Cilicia. They also wanted to help Armenian refugees return to their homes. In January 1920, Turkish Nationalists started an uprising against the French in Marash. After fierce fighting, the French retreated, and many Armenians had to leave the area.
Eventually, in 1921, the French and Turks signed a peace treaty. This treaty set the border between the Ankara government and French-controlled Syria. Many Armenians from Cilicia moved to French-controlled Syria. France was the first Allied power to recognize and negotiate with the Ankara government.
Eastern Front: Setting Borders with Armenia
After 1917, the Caucasus region was very unstable. The borders between the new Armenia and the Ottoman Empire were unclear. There were many refugees and much hardship on both sides of the border.
Kâzım Karabekir Pasha, a Turkish commander, saw many Muslim refugees fleeing from the Armenian army. He believed the eastern borders needed to be redrawn. The Russian government also wanted some areas transferred to Armenia, which the Turkish Nationalists did not accept. However, support from the Soviet Union was very important for the Turkish Nationalist movement, as Turkey did not have its own weapons factories.
On September 24, 1920, Karabekir's army and Kurdish groups entered Armenia. They advanced into cities like Kars and Alexandropol. The Armenian government eventually surrendered to Bolshevik forces (from Russia).
The Treaty of Alexandropol was signed in December 1920. It stated that Armenia gave up its claims to land in Anatolia. In March 1921, the Bolsheviks and Turkey signed a more complete agreement, the Treaty of Kars, which set the eastern borders of Turkey.
Western Front: The Greco-Turkish War
The Greco-Turkish War, also called the "Western Front," began when Greek forces landed in İzmir on May 15, 1919. At first, there was low-level fighting.
The conflict grew bigger in the summer of 1920 when Greece and Britain launched a joint attack. They took control of the Marmara coast and several cities.
Later, the Turks achieved their first victories in the First and Second Battle of İnönü. This was thanks to İsmet Pasha organizing the irregular fighters into a regular army. These victories led the Allies to suggest changes to the Treaty of Sèvres, but Greece refused. With the fighting ending on the Southern and Eastern fronts, Ankara could focus more forces on the Greeks in the west. They also started receiving support from the Soviet Union, France, and Italy.
In June–July 1921, there was heavy fighting in the Battle of Kütahya–Eskişehir. The Greeks won, but the Turkish army retreated in an organized way to the Sakarya river. Mustafa Kemal Pasha took over as commander-in-chief. For 21 days, the Turks and Greeks fought a fierce battle at the Sakarya river, which ended with the Greek army retreating. After a year of little fighting, the Turkish army grew stronger. French and Italian forces left Anatolia.
The Great Offensive and Peace
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On August 26, 1922, the Turks launched the Great Offensive in the Battle of Dumlupınar. They pushed back the Greek positions. Mustafa Kemal sent a famous message to his commanders: "Armies! Your first goal is the Mediterranean, onwards!" The Turks quickly recaptured all the areas the Greeks had taken. This included the recapture of İzmir, which was followed by a large fire. The Greek army retreated from Anatolia.
The British were ready to defend Istanbul and the Straits. France asked Kemal to respect this, and he agreed. France, Italy, and Britain then called for a ceasefire. Kemal agreed to negotiations in Mudanya. This agreement was signed on October 11, 1922. The Greeks initially refused but agreed two days later. This event, known as the Chanak Crisis, led to the British Prime Minister, David Lloyd George, losing his government.
Armistice of Mudanya
The Armistice of Mudanya was signed on October 11, 1922. This agreement stated that the Greek army would move west of the Maritsa river, leaving eastern Thrace to the Allies. Allied forces would stay in eastern Thrace for a month to keep order. In return, Ankara recognized that the British would continue to occupy Istanbul and the Straits until a final peace treaty was signed.
The War's End and New Beginnings
End of the Sultanate
Mustafa Kemal had planned to end the Sultan's rule for a long time. After some debate, he presented a law to the National Assembly to abolish the sultanate. The law stated that the Sultan's government in Istanbul had effectively ended when the British occupied the city. On November 1, 1922, the Turkish Grand National Assembly voted to abolish the sultanate. Sultan Mehmed VI left Turkey on November 17, 1922, ending the Ottoman monarchy that had lasted over 600 years.
The Treaty of Lausanne
The Conference of Lausanne began in Switzerland on November 21, 1922. Its goal was to create a new peace treaty to replace the unfair Treaty of Sèvres. İsmet Pasha was the main Turkish negotiator. He insisted that Turkey be treated as an independent and equal country. He refused any proposals that would limit Turkey's independence.
After long discussions, the Treaty of Lausanne was signed on July 24, 1923. This treaty officially recognized the Grand National Assembly as the true government of Turkey. It also recognized the Republic of Turkey as the country that took over from the Ottoman Empire. Turkey gained more favorable borders, and old agreements that limited its power were removed. The Allies left Istanbul ten weeks after the treaty was signed.
Founding the Republic
Turkey was declared a Republic on October 29, 1923. Mustafa Kemal Pasha was elected as its first President. He appointed important leaders like Mustafa Fevzi and İsmet. They helped him bring about many changes in Turkey, making it a modern and secular (non-religious) nation.
Changes After the War
Population Shifts
The war led to significant changes in the population of Turkey. Many people, including Greeks and Armenians, moved out of Anatolia, while many Muslim refugees moved into the area. This resulted in a more uniform population in the new Republic of Turkey. A formal population exchange was agreed upon, leading to large-scale movements of people.
The New Turkey
The Grand National Assembly became Turkey's main law-making body. In 1923, the main nationalist organization changed its name to the People's Party. Later, Mustafa Kemal renamed it the Republican People's Party (CHP), which is still one of Turkey's major political parties today.
Impact on Other Nations
The Turkish War of Independence inspired other countries. For example, in Germany, people saw how Turkey had successfully rejected the harsh Treaty of Sèvres. This encouraged some German leaders, like Adolf Hitler, to want to reject their own peace treaty, the Treaty of Versailles.
See also
In Spanish: Guerra de Independencia turca para niños
- Timeline of the Turkish War of Independence
- Medal of Independence
- Young Turk Revolution
- 31 March Incident
- Celali rebellions
- List of modern conflicts in the Middle East
