Medieval Welsh literature facts for kids

Kids Encyclopedia Facts

Medieval Welsh literature is the amazing collection of stories, poems, and writings created in the Welsh language during the Middle Ages. This period stretches from around the 5th century AD, when Welsh started to become its own language, all the way to the 16th century.

The Welsh language slowly became different from other old British languages between AD 400 and 700. The very first Welsh writings we still have are poems from this time. These early poets, called Y Cynfeirdd ("The Early Poets"), started a tradition that lasted over a thousand years! Later poets, known as the Poets of the Nobility, continued this tradition until the 16th century.

The main type of poetry was "praise poetry," where poets would sing about how great kings, princes, and nobles were. A famous early poet named Taliesin was seen as the first in this long line of poets. These poets were professionals. They depended on rich rulers to support them. When Wales lost its independence in 1282, it was a tough time for poets. But they found new ways to write, like using a new poem style called the cywydd, and they started getting support from other wealthy families.

Poets even had their own special group, like a guild, called the Order of Bards. They had rules for how to write poetry as a skilled craft. To become a fully qualified poet, you had to train for nine years! The rules also said how much a poet should be paid for their work. The payment changed depending on how long they had trained and how much people wanted poetry at different times of the year.

Besides poets, kings and nobles also had official storytellers called cyfarwydd (say: kuh-VAR-with). Like poets, storytellers were professionals. But sadly, most of their stories haven't survived. What we do have are written versions of old Welsh tales that these storytellers would have shared. The most famous collection of these stories is called the Mabinogion. Medieval Welsh writing wasn't just stories. It also included many religious and practical books, plus lots of works translated from other languages.

Early Welsh Poetry: Before 1100

In Welsh literature, the time before 1100 is called the period of Y Cynfeirdd ("The Early Poets") or Yr Hengerdd ("The Old Poetry"). This period goes from when the Welsh language began until the Normans arrived in Wales around the late 11th century.

The very oldest Welsh literature didn't come from what we now call Wales. It came from northern England and southern Scotland. This area was known as Yr Hen Ogledd (The Old North). The language used there, called Cumbric, was very similar to Old Welsh. Even though these poems were written in the 6th, 7th, and 8th centuries, we only have copies from the 13th and 14th centuries. Some of these early poets are mentioned in a 9th-century book called Historia Brittonum. This book lists famous poets from the time of King Ida (AD 547–559):

"At that time, Talhaiarn Tataguen was famous for poetry, and Neirin, and Taliesin, and Bluchbard, and Cian, who is called Guenith Guaut, were all famous at the same time in British (that is, Brythonic or Welsh) poetry."

We believe that some poems written by Aneirin and Taliesin from this list have survived.

Taliesin: A Master of Praise Poetry

The poems of Taliesin are kept in a 14th-century book called Llyfr Taliesin. This book has many later mystical poems said to be by him. But experts have found twelve poems that truly belong to the 6th century. All of these are praise poems. One praises Cynan Garwyn, a king of Powys around 580. Two praise Gwallawg, a king from the area around modern Leeds. And nine other poems praise Urien Rheged, a ruler near the Solway Firth, and his son, Owain.

Taliesin's poems praising Urien and Owain became examples for later poets. They looked to his work for ideas when they praised their own leaders.

Aneirin and the Battle of Catraeth

Aneirin, who lived around the same time as Taliesin, wrote a series of poems that form one long poem called Y Gododdin. It tells the story of the Battle of Catraeth. This battle was fought between the Britons from the kingdom of Gododdin (near modern Edinburgh) and the Saxon kingdoms of Deira and Bernicia in northeast England. The battle happened at Catterick around the year 598. This poem is preserved in Llyfr Aneirin (The Book of Aneirin), a book from about 1265.

Llywarch Hen and Heledd: Poems of Loss and Nature

Poems linked to Llywarch Hen, called Canu Llywarch Hen, and to Heledd, called Canu Heledd, are from a bit later. Canu Heledd is thought to be from the 9th century. The earliest parts of Canu Llywarch are also likely from the 9th century, but some parts might be as late as the 11th or 12th century. These poems are like monologues, where a single person speaks. They show sadness and pain over losing part of the Kingdom of Powys (now Shropshire) to the English. Nature is also very important in these poems. It often reflects the feelings and events in the poetry.

Other Early Poems

Even though many early poems show the sadness of Welsh people losing land to the Anglo-Saxon invaders, some poems offer hope. They talk about a future victory that would push the invaders back into the sea. One such poem is the 10th-century Armes Prydein (Prophecy of Britain) from the Book of Taliesin. It imagines a team-up of forces from Ireland, Great Britain, and Scandinavia defeating the English and giving Britain back to the Welsh.

This period also had religious poetry, like the short poems (englynion) praising the Trinity found in the 9th-century Juvencus Manuscript. In the Book of Taliesin, there's a 9th-century poem Edmyg Dinbych (In Praise of Tenby), probably written by a court poet to celebrate the New Year. The book also has important poems not written by Taliesin, like Preiddeu Annwfn (The Spoils of Annwn). The Book of Aneirin has an early Welsh nursery rhyme, Peis Dinogat (Dinogad's Smock). Many nature poems, wise sayings (gnomic poetry), and religious poems in the Black Book of Carmarthen and the Red Book of Hergest are also thought to be from this time.

Welsh Poetry: 1100 to 1600

From about 1100 to 1600, Welsh poetry can be split into two main periods. First, the Poets of the Princes worked before Wales lost its independence in 1282. Second, the Poets of the Nobility worked from 1282 until Wales became part of England in the 16th century.

Poets of the Princes (c. 1100 – c. 1300)

In Welsh, this time is called Beirdd y Tywysogion (Poets of the Princes) or Y Gogynfeirdd (The Less Early Poets). Most of the poems from the 12th and 13th centuries come from the Hendregadredd manuscript. This is a collection of court poetry put together at the Cistercian Strata Florida Abbey between about 1282 and 1350.

The poets of this time were professionals who worked in the courts of various Welsh princes. They were part of a Guild of poets with rights and duties set by Welsh law. They followed strict traditions and worked within a well-developed literary culture. Poet families were still common. For example, the poet Meilyr Brydydd had a poet son and at least two poet grandsons. But it became more common for poetry to be taught formally in special schools run by the pencerdd (chief musician). The pencerdd was the top poet. He had a special chair in the court, honored next to the prince. When he performed, he sang twice: once for God and once for the king. The bardd teulu (household poet) was one of the 24 court officers. He sang for the soldiers before battle and for the queen in her private room. The lowest-ranking poets were the cerddorion (musicians).

Their poetry praised the prince's fighting skills. They used old, sometimes hard-to-understand language, like the early praise poems of Taliesin. There were also some religious poems and poems praising women.

After the last native prince of Wales died in 1282, this tradition slowly faded away. Gruffudd ab yr Ynad Coch's poem about the death of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd is one of the most famous poems from this time. Other important poets include:

Meilyr Brydydd, active c. 1100–1137; the earliest of the Gogynfeirdd.
Bleddyn Fardd, active c. 1258–1284.
Cynddelw Brydydd Mawr; active c. 1155–1200.
Dafydd Benfras, active c. 1220–58.
Llywarch ap Llywelyn (also known as Prydydd y Moch), active 1174/5-1220.

A different kind of poet was Hywel ab Owain Gwynedd (died 1170). He was the son of Prince Owain Gwynedd, so he wasn't a professional poet.

Poets of the Nobility, or Cywyddwyr (c. 1300 – c. 1600)

Poetry continued to thrive in Wales as long as there were people to support the poets. Before 1282, Wales had many small kingdoms, each with its own ruler. This meant there were always courts for traveling professional poets. After 1282, poets found new supporters in wealthy land-owning families. Some of these were even Normans who had become part of Welsh society.

Much of the poetry from this time was still praise poetry. It praised the patron, their family, their ancestors, their home, and their generosity. The cywydd was the most popular type of poem. Because of this, the period is also known as the time of the Cywyddwyr (poets who wrote cywydd poems). These poems were often sung with a harp. While praise was common, satire (Welsh: dychan), which makes fun of things, also became popular. Poets organized themselves into a Guild to protect their jobs. Their rules were updated over time. Important changes to rules about support and poet ranks were made at the Caerwys eisteddfod (a festival of Welsh culture) in 1523. Many poems from this time have survived. Some are by unknown poets, but many are by famous ones. Here are a few:

Dafydd ap Gwilym (c. 1315/20 – c. 1350/1370)

Wales's greatest poet worked during this period. He is known for poems like "The Girls of Llanbadarn", "Trouble at a Tavern", "The Wind", and "The Seagull". For more, see Dafydd ap Gwilym.

Iolo Goch (c. 1325 – c. 1398)

From the Vale of Clwyd, Iolo Goch (meaning "Red Iolo") connected the old Poets of the Princes style with the new Poets of the Nobility style. Early in his career, he wrote in the older way. But he was one of the first to praise nobles using the cywydd. One of his main supporters was Ithel ap Robert. Perhaps his most famous work is a cywydd praising Owain Glyndŵr's home at Sycharth.

Siôn Cent (c. 1400 – 1430/45)

Siôn Cent, often linked to Breconshire, is famous for using his poetry to express his Christian beliefs. He stood apart from the tradition of praising patrons. He used the cywydd to criticize the sins of the world. His most famous poem might be I wagedd ac oferedd y byd (meaning "[In praise of] the vanity and wastefulness of the world"). He turned away from praising nobles, which he saw as flattery, and focused on the blessings of heaven.

Guto'r Glyn (c. 1435 – c. 1493)

Guto'r Glyn is connected to Glyn Ceiriog, Denbighshire, where many of his patrons lived. He also wrote poems for other patrons across Wales as he traveled. He was a master of the praise poetry tradition. Guto was also a soldier who fought for the Yorkist side in the War of the Roses. He spent his last years living at the Cistercian abbey of Valle Crucis, near Llangollen.

Dafydd Nanmor (fl. 1450 – 1490)

Dafydd Nanmor, born in Nanmor, Gwynedd, is one of the most important poets of this time. It is said he was sent away to south Wales for going too far in his poetry. He spent the rest of his life outside Gwynedd. The 20th-century writer Saunders Lewis saw special meaning in his work. Lewis saw him as a poet who praised the ideal ruler. He believed Dafydd Nanmor's patrons understood that in Welsh tradition, those with power also had duties to their family, community, and nation.

Tudur Aled (c. 1465 – c. 1525)

Tudur Aled was a nobleman himself and one of the greatest Poets of the Nobility. Born in Llansannan, Denbighshire, his most important patrons were the Salisbury family. He helped start the Caerwys eisteddfod of 1523. When he was very ill, he joined the Order of St. Francis. He died in Carmarthen and was buried there. When he died, other poets wrote poems praising his greatness. He was known for praising both non-religious and religious nobles. His work also shows the changes happening in the early 16th century that threatened the future of the bardic system.

Gruffudd Hiraethog (d. 1564)

Gruffudd Hiraethog, from Llangollen, was one of the top 16th-century poets who used the cywydd. He was part of the medieval guild of poets and strongly supported that tradition. But he also worked closely with William Salesbury, a leading Welsh scholar of the Renaissance. In fact, one of the first Welsh books ever printed was Gruffudd's collection of proverbs in 1547, called Oll synnwyr pen Kembero ygyd (meaning "All the wisdom of a Welshman's head collected together").

Other Voices in Poetry: 1300 to 1600

Not all the poetry from this time was praise poetry for nobles. Some groups of poets and types of poetry were completely outside that tradition. Women seemed to be excluded from the Welsh poetic guild. But we know some women did learn the Welsh poetic craft and wrote poems then. Only the work of one woman, Gwerful Mechain, has survived in large numbers.

Prophetic poetry (Welsh: canu brud) was a way to react to and comment on political events. This poetry was often unclear and hard to understand on purpose. But at its heart, it predicted victory for the Welsh over their enemies, the English. This poetry looked forward to a special leader who would free them. When the 'Welshman' Henry VII won the Battle of Bosworth in 1485, poets believed the prophecies had come true, and this type of poetry ended. Satire poetry (Welsh: canu dychan) was part of the 'official' poets' skills. It was used carefully in praise poetry to criticize a stingy patron. But satire really became popular in private poetry contests between poets.

Welsh Prose: Stories and More

The earliest written Welsh is thought to be a note of about sixty-four words in Llyfr Teilo (The Book of St. Teilo). This old gospel book is now in the library of St. Chad's Cathedral, Lichfield. The note, known as The Surexit memorandum, is from the 9th century or even earlier. It records a legal case about land.

The native Welsh storyteller, called the cyfarwydd ("the one who knows"), was an official at court. He was expected to know traditional knowledge and tales. But storytelling was mostly spoken, not written. Only a few pieces hint at how rich that tradition was. Among the most important are Trioedd Ynys Prydain, or the Welsh Triads. These were like memory aids for poets and storytellers. The stories that have survived are written versions based on these spoken traditions.

In the Middle Ages, Welsh was used for many different things. This is why we have so many kinds of written materials from this time. There are original works and translations, stories and facts, religious texts and legal documents, history books and medical writings.

Native Welsh Tales: The Mabinogion

The name Mabinogion is a helpful name for a group of tales found in two old books: the White Book of Rhydderch and the Red Book of Hergest. They are written in Middle Welsh, the common literary language from the late 11th century to the 14th century. They include four tales that make up Pedair Cainc y Mabinogi ("The Four Branches of the Mabinogi"):

Pwyll prince of Dyfed
Branwen daughter of Llŷr
Manawydan son of Llŷr
Math son of Mathonwy

Two other tales are native Welsh stories that include traditions about King Arthur:

Culhwch and Olwen, the oldest Arthurian tale in any language.
The Dream of Rhonabwy.

Two more are native tales about the early history of Britain:

Lludd and Llefelys.
The Dream of Maxen.

The last three are Arthurian Welsh Romances. They show the influence of the French poet Chrétien de Troyes:

Owain, or the Lady of the Fountain, from Yvain, the Knight of the Lion.
Geraint and Enid, from Erec and Enide.
Peredur son of Efrog, from Perceval, the Story of the Grail.

Native Welsh Law

It is believed that Hywel Dda called a meeting in Whitland, Carmarthenshire, around 945. At this meeting, Welsh law was written down to be kept forever. However, the oldest books with these legal texts are from about 250 years after this meeting. So, they probably aren't exactly what was written down then, if the meeting even happened. In fact, until Wales became part of England in 1536, native Welsh law grew and changed over time. That's why many more copies of these laws have survived than of the native tales.

Using Welsh for legal texts shows that the language had the right words and technical terms with clear and exact meanings needed for such important documents. It also shows that reading and writing Welsh wasn't just for priests and monks. There were also lawyers "whose skill is directed not to administrating the law (there were judges for that), but to writing it, to giving it permanence in words, to ordering words and sentences in such a way that what was stated should be quite clear" (Thomas Parry (1955), p. 68).

Religious Texts

Most Welsh religious texts from the Middle Ages are translations. They were usually written by unknown monks and priests. These works show what was popular in the Christian world at the time: stories that weren't in the Bible, dreams or visions, religious writings, and mystical works.

Lives of the Saints

About thirty stories about the lives of saints have survived. Some are about Welsh saints like Beuno, Curig, and Gwenfrewi. Others are about more widely known saints like Mary, the mother of Jesus, Mary Magdalene, Martin of Tours, and Catherine of Alexandria. All of these were translated into Welsh from Latin. Even the stories of the Welsh saints were first written in Latin, and a long time after the saints actually lived. So, they aren't very useful for finding real historical information. Perhaps the two most important are Buchedd Dewi ("The life of Dewi, or, David") written by Rhygyfarch around 1094, and Buchedd Cadog ("Life of Cadog") written by Lifris of Llancarfan around 1100.

History Texts

Welsh medieval history texts are like literary creations, but they fall into two different groups. The first group, Brut y Tywysogion, tends to stick to historical facts. The second, Brut y Brenhinedd, is a fantastic story created by Geoffrey of Monmouth.

Brut y Tywysogion: The Chronicle of Princes

Brut y Tywysogion (Chronicle of the Princes) includes different Welsh translations of original Latin records. These records tell the history of Wales from the 7th century until the death of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd in 1282. It's believed that the original Latin text and its Welsh translation were created at the Cistercian Strata Florida Abbey.

Brut y Brenhinedd: The Chronicle of Kings

Brut y Brenhinedd (Chronicle of the Kings) is the name for several texts that all come from translations of Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae (1136). These works were very important in shaping how the Welsh saw themselves and others. They traced their origins back to Brutus of Troy, a mythical founder of Britain. In fact, the Welsh word brut comes from Brutus's name. It originally meant "a history of Brutus" and later just "a chronicle history."