The Old Assyrian period was an important time in the history of Assyria. It covers the city of Assur from when it became an independent city-state around 2025 BC. This period ended around 1363 BC, when Assyria grew into a larger state.

During this time, a unique Assyrian culture began to develop. It was different from other cultures in southern Mesopotamia. Assur was often under the control of other kingdoms. But it also became a major center for international trade. The Assyrian language, a type of Akkadian language, also became distinct.

For most of this period, Assur was a small city-state. Its kings were not like the powerful rulers of later Assyria. They were called Išši'ak Aššur, meaning "governor for the god Ashur". They led the city's assembly, called the Ālum. This assembly was made up of important citizens.

Even without a strong army, Assur was a key trading hub. From around 1974 BC, it had a huge trading network. This network stretched from the Zagros Mountains to central Anatolia. Assyrian traders set up colonies, like Kanesh (modern Kültepe).

Around 1808 BC, an outsider named Shamshi-Adad I took over Assur. He created a short-lived kingdom in northern Mesopotamia. After his death in 1776 BC, Assur faced a difficult time. It became independent again around 1720 BC under the Adaside dynasty. Later, around 1430 BC, Assur became a vassal (a state controlled by another) of the Mitanni kingdom. But it broke free in the early 14th century BC. This led to Assyria becoming a large empire.

We know a lot about this period from over 22,000 clay tablets. These were found at the trading colony of Kültepe. They tell us about Old Assyrian culture, language, and daily life. Men and women had similar legal rights. They could own property and trade. The main god was Ashur, who was seen as the city's protector.

What is Old Assyrian?

Modern experts divide ancient Assyrian history into different stages. These stages are based on political changes and how the language developed. "Old Assyrian" is one of these stages. It describes the early culture of the city of Assur.

This term refers to Assur as a city and its culture. It does not mean Assyria as a large country. Assyria only became a big kingdom later. So, "Old Assyrian" covers the history, politics, and daily life of Assur. It starts from the earliest detailed records until the next period began. Assur itself is much older. But before this period, it was not independent.

History of Assur

Early Kings and Trade

Royal seal of Erishum I (around 1974–1934 BC)

Royal seal of Naram-Sin (around 1872–1829/1819 BC)

The Assyrian king list mentions very early kings. But Assur likely became truly independent under Puzur-Ashur I around 2025 BC. We don't know much about how he came to power. His family said he rebuilt the city walls. Assur probably gained independence when the Ur III empire in the south weakened.

Not many old buildings from Assur survive from this time. So, we know little about the city and its early rulers. The kings of Puzur-Ashur's family did not call themselves "king" (šar). They used the title "governor" (Išši'ak). They believed the god Ashur was the true king.

Assur was a small city, with only about 5,000 to 8,000 people. It had limited military power. There are no records of its army or wars. It did not control nearby cities.

Puzur-Ashur's son, Shalim-ahum, built a temple for Ashur. His grandson, Ilu-shuma, was the first to get involved in foreign affairs. He opened up trade and sold copper. This shows Assur was producing enough copper for itself and others. Ilu-shuma also built wells in Assur.

Ilu-shuma's son, Erishum I (around 1974–1934 BC), was very successful. He started a system of free trade. Private bankers funded most of the trade. They took the risks but also earned most of the profits. Assur quickly became a major trading city. Erishum used money from tolls to expand Assur. He rebuilt the Ashur temple and built a new one for the god Adad.

Erishum's son, Ikunum (around 1934–1921 BC), rebuilt the city walls. This needed money from Assur and its trading colonies. His son, Sargon I (around 1920–1881 BC), had a prosperous reign. Assyrian trade reached its peak. But later kings, Puzur-Ashur II and Naram-Sin, faced threats. The city of Eshnunna and then Shamshi-Adad I from Ekallatum threatened Assur.

Trading Colonies

Old Assyrian cuneiform tablet from Kültepe. It records a loan repayment and has four cylinder seal impressions.

While records from Assur are few, we have many texts from central Anatolia. The largest collection of Old Assyrian tablets comes from Kültepe. This city was known as Kanesh back then. Assyrians set up a trade colony, or karum, there.

Archaeologists found about 22,000 cuneiform clay tablets at Kültepe. These tablets show a huge Assyrian trade network. Assur was the center of this network. It had smaller trade posts across Anatolia and Mesopotamia. This trade network was the first big mark Assyrians made in history. Assur kept its central role even though it was small and not militarily strong.

Excavated ruins of the Old Assyrian trading colony at Kültepe

Historians once thought these tablets meant a large "Old Assyrian Empire" in Anatolia. But this idea is now not believed. The Assyrian traders lived in Kültepe as visitors, not as conquerors. Their houses were like local ones. The colony was also a center for making pottery and metal objects.

The tablets show that Assyrians had their own government and court at Kültepe. They followed Assyrian law. The court often got advice from Assur, sometimes from the kings themselves. The tablets also tell us about the traders' family lives. Their wives in Assur often managed the household and gathered goods for trade.

The Kültepe colony was burned down around 1836 BC. This helped preserve the tablets. It was rebuilt soon after. It's estimated that 25 tons of silver went to Assur from Anatolia. In return, about 100 tons of tin and 100,000 textiles went to Anatolia. Assyrians also sold animals and other goods. The textiles came from southern Mesopotamia, and tin from the Zagros Mountains.

A trader could travel the 1,000 kilometers (620 miles) between Assur and Kültepe in six weeks. They used donkey caravans. Traders paid taxes and tolls along the way. But profits were huge. Goods were sold at double or more the price in Mesopotamia. Assur's importance as a trade center declined in the 19th century BC. This was likely due to more conflicts between states.

Kingdom of Upper Mesopotamia

Shamshi-Adad's Rule

Map showing the Kingdom of Upper Mesopotamia around 1776 BC. This kingdom was founded by Shamshi-Adad I.

From the 19th century BC, Assur was often controlled by larger foreign states. We know a lot about this time from records found in the city of Mari. These records cover the rule of Shamshi-Adad I (around 1808–1776 BC) and his sons.

Shamshi-Adad was an Amorite king from Ekallatum. He conquered Assur in 1808 BC. He removed the last king of Puzur-Ashur I's family. Shamshi-Adad then conquered many cities in northern Mesopotamia. His kingdom is sometimes called the Kingdom of Upper Mesopotamia.

He made Shubat-Enlil his capital. Around 1785 BC, he put his two sons in charge of different parts of the kingdom. Assur remained a distinct city. It might have continued its trade. Shamshi-Adad respected Assur's traditions. He rebuilt its temples. But he was still a foreign ruler. He chose Shubat-Enlil as his capital because Assur was formally ruled by the god Ashur. It also had a powerful local assembly.

Kingdom's Collapse

The Old Babylonian Empire under Hammurabi (around 1792–1750 BC). It briefly controlled Assur after Shamshi-Adad's kingdom fell.

In the 18th century BC, Shamshi-Adad's kingdom faced many rivals. These included Larsa, Babylon, Eshnunna, and Elam. The kingdom's survival depended on Shamshi-Adad's military strength. When he died around 1776 BC, the kingdom collapsed.

Local rulers quickly took back power. Shamshi-Adad's son, Ishme-Dagan, only kept control of Ekallatum and Assur. He respected Assur's customs. His wife was even named after the god Ashur.

Around 1772 BC, Eshnunna invaded Ishme-Dagan's kingdom. Ishme-Dagan fled. He later returned with help from Babylon. But northern Mesopotamia was invaded again by an army from Elam. An alliance pushed them back. Assur then briefly came under the control of the Old Babylonian Empire under Hammurabi. Hammurabi respected Assur's institutions.

Assyrian "Dark Age"

A fragment of the Assyrian King List. It shows Ishme-Dagan I's successors, who are not in the main list.

The period between the 18th and 14th centuries BC is called the Assyrian "Dark Age". This is because we have very few historical records from this time. Documents from other sites stop. Royal inscriptions from Assur are rare. But Assur did become an independent city-state again.

The Assyrian King List shows a continuous line of rulers. But it's incomplete for the time after Shamshi-Adad's death. This was a time of political uncertainty. Different groups fought for control of Assur.

According to the list, Ishme-Dagan was followed by Ashur-dugul. But other records show Ishme-Dagan was followed by his son Mut-Ashkur. A ruler named Puzur-Sin, not on the main list, claimed to have removed a foreign ruler from Assur. He said he liberated Assur from the Amorites.

Ashur-dugul's rule was challenged by six others. It's unclear if they were real rival kings. They might have been his generals. Ashur-dugul was followed by Bel-bani around 1700 BC. Bel-bani founded the Adaside dynasty. This family ruled Assyria for about a thousand years. Later kings saw Bel-bani as a restorer of stability.

The Assyrian King List is more reliable from Bel-bani onwards. This is when Assur had a stable ruling family.

Rise of Assyria

Political map of the Ancient Near East in 1400 BC. Assur was under the Mitanni kingdom.

The invasion by the Hittite king Mursili I around 1595 BC was very important. It destroyed the Old Babylonian Empire. This created a power vacuum. New states like the Kassite kingdom and the Hurrian Mitanni state emerged. The Hittite invasion must have affected Assur, but we have no records.

Mitanni became the main power in northern Mesopotamia. But Assur also had a brief period of importance. Assyrian rulers from around 1520 to 1430 BC were more assertive. Puzur-Ashur III (around 1521–1498 BC) is the first Assyrian king mentioned in a text about border disputes with Babylonia. This suggests Assur now ruled some territory outside the city.

Assur was prosperous from the late 16th to early 15th century BC. Kings repaired and rebuilt temples and city walls. Under Puzur-Ashur III, the city walls were extended. This shows the population was growing. A "new city" was added to the "inner city".

Around 1430 BC, Mitanni took control of Assur. This lasted about 70 years. Assur kept some freedom. Its kings still built projects and traded with Egypt. The Hittite king Šuppiluliuma I fought Mitanni in the 14th century BC. This weakened Mitanni.

Assyria gained independence under King Ashur-uballit I (around 1363–1328 BC). He conquered nearby lands. This marked the start of the Middle Assyrian period. Ashur-uballit I was the first native Assyrian ruler to call himself "king". He also claimed to be a "great king," like the pharaohs.

Archaeological Discoveries

Drinking vessel shaped like a woman's head from Assur, 1500–1200 BC

Few archaeological finds from the Old Assyrian period exist, except for the Kültepe trade archives. Later Assyrian kings rebuilt much of Assur. This left few traces of the original structures.

Some finds include a new phase of the city's Ishtar temple. An early palace, called the Urplan Palace, was also found. It was huge, measuring 98 by 112 meters (321.5 by 367.5 feet). It had a large central court. But it seems it was never fully finished.

We know little about ordinary houses in Assur. No houses or private records of citizens have been found. However, over seventy graves from 2500 to 1500 BC are known. These graves vary in design. Some bodies were in pits, others in large ceramic pots. Some were in tombs with vaulted roofs made of stone or mudbrick. These vaulted tombs are important. They show a long-lasting Assyrian tradition. Later, families buried their dead under their houses in similar tombs. Many tombs contain rich gifts, like jewelry and weapons.

How Assur Was Governed

Kingship and Administration

Old Assyrian Assur was an oligarchy. This means a small group of powerful people ruled. The king was important, but not the only ruler. Unlike later Assyrian kings, they were not autocrats (sole rulers). They were seen as servants of the god Ashur. They led the city assembly, called the Ālum.

Kings mostly acted as leaders and chairmen of this assembly. Documents from Kültepe often mention "the City" (the assembly) making legal decisions. But rulers were also asked for legal advice. They were seen as "constitutional experts". Kings were called Išši'ak, but citizens also called them rubā’um ("great one"). This showed they had authority.

The city assembly was likely made of the city's most powerful families. Many were merchants. From Erishum I's time, a yearly official called a limmu was elected. This official had much power. The year was named after them in all official documents. Kings were usually the limmu in their first year.

The assembly met in a "sacred precinct" or the "Step Gate". Oaths were sworn there. There were seven statues of divine judges. Sometimes, they met in the "city hall" (bēt ālim). The limmu official ran the city hall. It managed city money, collected taxes, and sold goods. It had a local monopoly on some items like lapis lazuli. Decisions were made by majority vote. A smaller group, "the Elders," might have made final decisions.

Assur first saw a more absolute form of kingship under Shamshi-Adad I. He was the first to use the title šarrum (king) and "king of the Universe". He based his rule on the kings of the Old Babylonian Empire. He called himself "king of the Universe, builder of Assur's temple". He also said he was "beloved of Ashur". Assyrians also swore oaths by the king, not just the god. This practice stopped after his death.

Royal Seals

Royal seal of Sargon I (around 1920–1881 BC)

Incomplete royal seal of Shamshi-Adad I (around 1808–1776 BC)

In ancient Mesopotamia, royal seals were important. They were used as official tools and personal seals for kings. We know of only four royal seals from the Puzur-Ashur dynasty. These are from Erishum I, Sargon I, and Naram-Sin. They are mostly from the Kültepe tablets.

These seals are very similar. They show the king's name and title, Išši'ak Aššur. They also state he is the son of the previous king. The artwork shows a goddess leading a bald man to a seated ruler. This scene was common on other seals too. But on royal seals, there were no extra figures. This made the main figures stand out more.

The Puzur-Ashur dynasty seals look like those of the Third Dynasty of Ur. But there are differences. For example, a second goddess behind the seated ruler is rare. In Ur III seals, the seated ruler was a divine king. But Assur's rulers were not seen as divine. They were servants of the god Ashur. So, the seated figure on their seals might be Ashur himself. The bald servant led before him would be the Assyrian king.

Shamshi-Adad I kept some of the old traditions in his seals. His seal inscription was similar to the earlier kings. But his image was different. He looked more like the rulers of the Old Babylonian Empire. He had a full beard and different headgear. We don't know the middle part of his seal because all surviving copies are broken.

Daily Life and Society

People and Culture

Old Assyrian letter from Kültepe about trading precious metals.

Unique burial practices in Old Assyrian Assur suggest a distinct Assyrian identity. Cultural practices like burials, clothing, and food help form identities. Frequent contact with foreigners through trade might have strengthened this identity.

An old law said, "Assyrians can sell gold among each other but... no Assyrian whosoever shall give gold to an Akkadian, Amorite or Subaraean." This shows Assyrians saw themselves as a separate group.

We have limited information about personal lives from Assur itself. But the Kültepe tablets give us many details. They show the daily lives of traders in Kültepe and their families back in Assur.

Men and women had similar legal rights. They could pay fines, inherit property, and trade. They could buy and sell houses and slaves. Both could make wills and divorce their partners. Society was divided into slaves (subrum) and free citizens (awīlum or "sons of Ashur"). Among free citizens, there were "big" and "small" members of the city assembly.

Old Assyrian Families

Marriages in Old Assyyrian Assur were arranged by the groom's family and the bride's parents. They usually happened when the bride became an adult. Marriage gifts were common. If no gifts were given, engagements could be broken. The bride's dowry belonged to her. Her children inherited it after her death.

Wives moved in with their husbands. Husbands had to provide food and clothing. Most marriages were monogamous (one husband, one wife). If a wife did not have a child after two or three years, a husband could buy a female slave to have heirs. This woman remained a slave. She was not a second wife.

Families sometimes hired wet nurses for babies. If a mother died, children were cared for by other family members. Girls learned to spin and weave. Boys learned to read and write. They often traveled with their fathers to learn trade. The oldest daughter might become a priestess for a god. These women could not marry. They became financially independent.

Furniture piece from Kültepe, showing a monkey.

Wives of traders often stayed home in Assur. They managed households and raised children. They had to get food, repair the house, and make clothes. Sometimes they lived with their in-laws.

Traders could be away for a long time. So, they were allowed to have a second wife in Anatolia. There were rules for this. The two wives could not have the same status. One was the "main wife" (aššatum), the other the "second wife" (amtum). They had to live in different regions. A third wife was not allowed. Both wives needed food, wood, and a house. Children of the "second wife" might have had fewer inheritance rights.

Most divorces were by agreement. Both husband and wife paid high fines. Both could remarry. If a man disliked his wife, he could send her back to her family. But he had to pay money. If a wife behaved badly, the husband could take her possessions and send her away. Divorces were more common for second wives in Anatolia. This happened when husbands stopped trading and stayed in Assur. Husbands decided if they took their children. They paid money based on how many children they took.

If a husband died, his children inherited his goods. They had to care for their mother. If there were no children, the wife kept her dowry. She could remarry. If the husband had a will, his wife could inherit his property. Sons were responsible for paying their father's debts. Daughters were not. Both sons and daughters cared for elderly parents. They also paid for funerals.

After death, people believed the deceased lived as ghosts in the Ancient Mesopotamian underworld. They could appear in dreams. Family members honored the dead with prayers and offerings. This was easy because they were often buried under their family homes.

Slavery in Assur

Old Assyrian cuneiform tablet from Kültepe. It records expenses during a caravan journey.

Slavery was common in ancient societies. In the Akkadian language, the term wardum was used for slaves. But it could also mean free servants, soldiers, or subjects. Many wardum in Old Assyrian texts handled property. So, many might have been free servants, not slaves. But some wardum were bought and sold. Other terms for slaves also had other meanings. For example, amtum meant female slave, but also second wife.

Old Assyrian texts rarely mention where slaves came from. This suggests their origin was not very important. There were two main types of slaves:

Chattel slaves: These were mostly foreigners. They were kidnapped or taken in war.
Debt slaves: These were free people who could not pay their debts.

Sometimes, Assyrian children were sold into slavery if their parents couldn't pay debts. Children born to slave women automatically became slaves.

Owning slaves showed wealth. A male slave cost about 30 shekels. A female slave cost 20 shekels. Slaves from Anatolia were usually cheaper than those from Mesopotamia. Both women and men owned slaves. Female slaves cleaned, cooked, and helped with children. Some male slaves worked in trade caravans. City institutions, like the city hall, also owned slaves. Slaves were sometimes sold to pay debts. They could also be taken as security for debts.

Economy and Trade

A large part of the Old Assyrian population was involved in international trade. Businesses were often run by families. Each family member had specific tasks. Many business relationships were based on family ties. The boss was called abum ("father"). Partners were aḫum ("brothers"). Employees were ṣūḫārū (younger family members). Businesses were called bētum ("house").

Trade involved many jobs. These included porters, guides, donkey drivers, and bankers. In family businesses, the oldest son often moved to Kültepe. The father stayed home. Other sons helped transport goods. Women were also part of businesses. They wove textiles that their male relatives sold. Women received the gold or silver payment for these textiles. They could represent their husbands and brothers in deals. Sons could inherit their father's business or start their own.

Loan contracts are common among the Kültepe tablets. These were loans within the Assyrian community or with locals. Non-commercial loans had interest. This was 30% per year for Assyrians. It was higher for locals. Loans usually had to be paid back within a year. The loan tablet was returned when the debt was paid.

Food and Drink

Old Assyrian drinking vessel from Kültepe, shaped like a ram's head.

We have limited information about what people in Assur ate. Letters mention wives buying barley and making bread and beer. Women usually prepared food.

More details come from Kültepe records. Bread and beer were the main food and drink. Water was also consumed but not often mentioned. Two types of bread were eaten: sourdough and plain bread. Animal fat and sesame oil were used for cooking. Honey was a sweetener. Common herbs and spices included salt, cumin, coriander, and mustard.

Meat was also eaten, often grilled or in stews. Records show Assyrians ate sheep, oxen, pork, shrimp, and fish. Animals were often killed at home. But pre-cut meat could be bought.

Wine was a luxury drink. It was called kerānum. It was made from grapes grown in Cappadocia and other areas. When drinking beer, Assyrians often ate beer bread. This was made from crushed barley. Beer was consumed in formal situations. Traders drank beer when buying animals or completing journeys. Guards and toll officials were paid with beer. Wine was used in rituals, like swearing oaths to a god.

Language of Old Assyria

Old Assyrian cuneiform tablet from Kültepe, containing a private letter.

The language in the Assyrian tablets is called Old Assyrian. It is a Semitic language, related to modern Hebrew and Arabic. It is closely related to Babylonian, spoken in southern Mesopotamia. Modern scholars see them as dialects of Akkadian. But ancient writers saw them as separate languages. Babylonian was akkadûm, while Assyrian was aššurû.

Old Assyrian texts are mostly from before the "Dark Age". The writing signs are simpler than later forms. There were only about 150–200 unique signs. Most were for syllables. Letters sometimes have mistakes. This suggests authors wrote them themselves, not hired scribes. Some letters are by women, showing some women could read and write.

Old Assyrian is easier for modern researchers to understand. But the limited signs can make some words hard to read. It contains unique words not found in later periods. These include commercial terms and names for textiles and food from Anatolia.

Calendar System

The Old and Middle Assyrian calendar had twelve months. Each month had three constellations, representing ten days. The months had names like Ab sharrāni and Makhur ilī. Many names show the calendar's connection to stars. For example, Tanmarta was also the name for the star Sirius rising. Makhur ilī meant "meeting of the gods". This likely referred to the moon and the Pleiades star cluster. The Assyrian calendar probably started in autumn. This was when farmers plowed fields.

The calendar had problems. An extra week, ḫamuštum, had to be added to the twelve thirty-day months. An extra month was added every four years. Also, the year did not always start with a new month. It often started with star events. If a year ended in the middle of a month, the next year started with that same month. This meant months could repeat. Over time, the seasons shifted in the calendar. In the 13th century BC, King Shalmaneser I had to fix the calendar. He moved the months back to their correct positions.

Religion and Beliefs

Wall relief from Assur, 2000–1500 BC. It shows a deity, likely Ashur, with two water deities and two goats.

Assyrians worshipped the same gods as the Babylonians. Most Old Assyrian texts are about trade. So, we don't know as much about their religion. The main god was Ashur. He was the national deity. The god and the city were written the same way in ancient times (Aššur).

People believed Ashur was the city itself, made into a god. The city might have started as a holy place. Ashur's role changed over time. Later, he was a god of war. But in Old Assyrian times, he was linked to death and new life, and farming.

Ashur was also a god of justice. People believed false witnesses would be struck down by "Ashur's dagger". Assyrians swore oaths on this weapon. Women swore oaths on the "tambourine (huppum) of Ishtar". These were likely physical symbols of the gods. Temples to Ashur had statues and symbols of the god. One text describes thieves stealing Ashur's dagger from a temple.

Ashur is often mentioned in texts. Assyrians swore oaths by "the City and the prince" or "the City and the lord". These likely referred to Ashur. Families in Assur told traders in Kültepe to "come and see the eye of Ashur". This suggests the god didn't like his people leaving the city for too long just for money.

Women were very religious. They made offerings and paid tribute to the gods. They reminded their husbands of their duties. In one text, two women wrote to a trader:

Ashur warned you over and over again. You love money, (but) neglect your soul; can you not do Ashur's will in the City! Urgent! When you hear this message come and see Ashur's eye and save your soul!

Cylinder seal impression, showing three deities approaching a seated figure. Old Assyrian period, around 1920–1740 BC.

Besides Ashur, other important gods were worshipped. These included the weather-god Enlil and the Semitic weather-god Adad. Adad's name was part of many people's names. The moon-god Sîn was also very important. His name was also common in people's names. Later, Sîn became a main god for the Assyrian royal family. The goddess Ishtar was also important. She was likely the first main god of the settlement.

Few purely religious texts from this period are known. One poem describes an evil demon. She was the daughter of the sky-god Anu. She was cast down to Earth. This demon helped humans by attacking those who went against the gods. She also weakened dangerous animals. Another text talks about a demon like a black dog. This demon waited for merchant caravans. It might have been linked to the water-god Enki. It may have represented thirst.

Old Assyrian period facts for kids

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