Roman Britain facts for kids

Quick facts for kids Province of Britain Provincia Britannia  (Latin)
Province of the Roman Empire
43 AD–c. 410
Province of Britain in the Roman Empire in 125 AD
Capital	Camulodunum Londinium
Historical era	Classical antiquity
• Annexed by Claudius	43 AD
• Severan Division	c. 197
• Early fourth century Division	c. 312
• End of Roman rule	c. 410
Preceded by Succeeded by British Iron Age Sub-Roman Britain
Today part of	United Kingdom  ∟England  ∟Wales  ∟Scotland

Roman Britain was a part of the Roman Empire that covered a large area of the island of Great Britain. The Romans ruled this land from about 43 AD until 410 AD.

The famous Roman general Julius Caesar first visited Britain in 55 and 54 BC. He believed that the local tribes, called Britons, were helping his enemies in Gaul. Caesar made some agreements with local kings and then returned to Gaul. Later, other Roman emperors thought about invading Britain, but it wasn't until 43 AD that Emperor Claudius sent a large army. They defeated the local tribes and made Britain a new Roman province. The Romans slowly expanded their control across the island.

A Roman general named Gnaeus Julius Agricola led the Roman army further north between 77 and 84 AD. He even reached a place called Caledonia (modern-day Scotland). Agricola fought a big battle against the Caledonians at Battle of Mons Graupius. Many Britons lost their lives in this battle. This marked a major point in the Roman conquest of Britain.

To protect their new province, the Romans built two famous walls. Emperor Hadrian ordered the construction of Hadrian’s Wall around 120 AD. Later, Emperor Antoninus Pius built the Antonine Wall further north. These walls helped defend Roman Britain from tribes in the north. Over time, Roman Britain was divided into smaller areas to make it easier to govern. However, the province faced many attacks from other groups and sometimes had leaders who tried to take power for themselves. Around 410 AD, the Romans finally left Britain. After they left, the local kingdoms began to form what is known as Sub-Roman Britain.

During the Roman rule, a unique Romano-British culture developed. The Romans brought new ideas about farming, town planning, making goods, and building. The goddess Britannia became a symbol for the island. Most of what we know about Roman Britain comes from archaeological discoveries and old inscriptions, as Roman historians didn't write much about it after the initial conquest. People from all over the Roman Empire came to live in Britain.

History of Roman Britain

Early Roman Contact

People in the Classical world knew about Britain long ago. Greeks, Phoenicians, and Carthaginians traded for tin from Britain as early as the 4th century BC. They called Britain the "tin islands." Some ancient writers even thought Britain was a mysterious, mythical place.

The first Roman to visit Britain was Julius Caesar. He led two expeditions in 55 and 54 BC. Caesar was conquering Gaul (modern-day France) and believed Britons were helping his enemies. His first trip was mostly to explore. He landed in Kent but couldn't go far due to storms. Even so, the Roman Senate celebrated his return to Rome.

Caesar's second invasion used a much larger army. He made many local tribes agree to peace and give hostages. He also helped a friendly king, Mandubracius, take power. Caesar didn't conquer any land or leave soldiers behind. But he did bring Britain into Rome's influence through trade and alliances.

Around 40 AD, Emperor Caligula gathered a huge army to invade Britain. But the invasion never happened. Three years later, in 43 AD, Emperor Claudius finally launched a successful invasion. He helped a British ruler named Verica who had been exiled. This marked the true beginning of Roman rule in Britain.

Roman Invasion and Conquest

Roman conquests in southeastern Britain, 43 to 60 AD

The Roman invasion in 43 AD was led by Aulus Plautius. Several legions were part of this force. One important legion was the Legio II Augusta, led by Vespasian, who later became emperor.

The invasion was delayed because some soldiers were afraid to cross the ocean. But they were convinced to go. They likely landed in Richborough in Kent. The Romans defeated the local tribes in two main battles. One of the British leaders, Togodumnus, was killed. His brother, Caratacus, continued to fight.

Plautius waited at the River Thames for Emperor Claudius to arrive with more troops. Claudius brought reinforcements, including war elephants. They marched to the capital of the Catuvellauni tribe, Camulodunum (Colchester). The Romans took control of the southeast of Britain. They also made agreements with some tribes who became their allies.

Establishing Roman Rule

After securing the south, the Romans focused on what is now Wales. Tribes like the Silures and Ordovices strongly resisted the invaders. Caratacus led the Silures in a clever guerrilla campaign.

In 51 AD, Caratacus was defeated in a major battle. He sought safety with the Brigantes tribe, but their queen, Cartimandua, handed him over to the Romans. Caratacus was taken to Rome, where his brave speech impressed Emperor Claudius, who spared his life. However, the Silures continued to fight.

Around 60-61 AD, a major uprising happened in southeastern Britain. It was led by Boudica, queen of the Iceni tribe. Her husband, King Prasutagus, had died. The Romans treated Boudica and her daughters very badly and seized their lands. In response, Boudica led her people and the Trinovantes in a revolt. They destroyed the Roman colony at Camulodunum (Colchester) and defeated a Roman legion.

Boudica's rebels then attacked London (Londinium) and Verulamium (St. Albans), destroying them. Many people were killed in these cities. The Roman governor, Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, regrouped his army. Despite being greatly outnumbered, he defeated the rebels in the Battle of Watling Street. Boudica died soon after. Emperor Nero even considered pulling Roman forces out of Britain at this time.

More troubles came in 69 AD during a civil war in Rome. This allowed Venutius, a leader of the Brigantes, to take control of the north. After Vespasian became emperor, Roman generals worked to bring the Brigantes and Silures back under control. Roman rule expanded into South Wales, and they began mining for resources like gold.

Governor Gnaeus Julius Agricola continued the conquest. In 78 AD, he defeated the Ordovices. In 84 AD, Agricola's army defeated the Caledonians in northern Scotland at the Battle of Mons Graupius. This was the furthest north the Romans reached in Britain. Soon after, many Roman troops were moved to other parts of the Empire.

For much of Roman Britain's history, a large number of soldiers were stationed on the island. This meant that trusted leaders were sent to govern the province. Many future emperors, like Vespasian, served in Britain.

Walls and Divisions

After Agricola, there isn't much written history about Britain for a few decades. But archaeology shows that some Roman forts in southern Scotland were rebuilt. Around 105 AD, there might have been attacks from northern tribes, as some forts were burned.

Hadrian's Wall viewed looking east from Housesteads Roman Fort (Vercovicium). The wall in the background has been consolidated.

Around 120 AD, Emperor Hadrian visited Britain. He ordered the building of a huge defensive wall, known as Hadrian's Wall. This wall stretched across northern England, from coast to coast, to protect the Roman province from tribes like the Picts.

Later, under Emperor Antoninus Pius (138–161 AD), the Roman border moved north again. The Antonine Wall was built in Scotland, between the Forth and Clyde rivers, around 142 AD. However, this northern occupation didn't last long. Around 155 AD, the Brigantes tribe revolted, and Roman troops had to move south. The Antonine Wall was abandoned by 163 or 164 AD, and the border returned to Hadrian's Wall.

In 180 AD, the Picts broke through Hadrian's Wall, causing a serious war. A new governor, Ulpius Marcellus, restored peace. But his strictness led to a rebellion among his own soldiers. The future emperor Pertinax was sent to calm the mutiny, but he was also attacked and had to leave.

The Third Century

The death of Emperor Commodus led to a civil war in the Roman Empire. Clodius Albinus, the governor of Britain, was one of the rivals for the throne. He had three legions under his command, making him a powerful figure. He crossed to Gaul with his army but was defeated by Septimius Severus in 197 AD.

Albinus's absence left northern Britain vulnerable to attacks from tribes like the Maeatae. Emperor Severus, despite being 62 years old, decided to lead an expedition to Britain in 208 AD. He wanted to secure the northern frontier and give his sons, Caracalla and Geta, military experience.

Northern campaigns, 208–211

Severus's army, numbering about 20,000 troops, marched north into Caledonia. The northern tribes used guerrilla warfare tactics, avoiding direct battles. Severus reached the River Tay but eventually signed peace treaties with the Caledonians. By 210 AD, he returned to York, and Hadrian's Wall became the frontier again. Severus died in York in 211 AD.

To prevent powerful governors from rebelling, Severus divided Britain into two smaller provinces: Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior. This helped keep the peace for nearly a century. During this time, forts were built along the southern coast to protect against pirates. These became known as the Saxon Shore Forts.

In the mid-3rd century, the Roman Empire faced many challenges, but Britain remained relatively stable. However, economic problems like inflation affected the province. From 259 to 274 AD, Britain was part of a separate "Gallic Empire" before the Roman Empire was reunited.

Around 286 AD, a Roman naval commander named Carausius rebelled and created his own "Britannic Empire" in Britain and parts of Gaul. He ruled for ten years until he was overthrown by his treasurer, Allectus. In 296 AD, the Roman junior emperor Constantius Chlorus invaded Britain and defeated Allectus, bringing Britain back into the Roman Empire.

Fourth Century Changes

Roman Britain in 410

Another possible arrangement of Roman provinces in Britain around 400 AD

Around 312 AD, the Roman administration in Britain was reorganized. The province was divided into four smaller provinces: Maxima Caesariensis, Flavia Caesariensis, Britannia Prima, and Britannia Secunda. A special official called a vicarius oversaw these provinces from Londinium (London). This made it easier to manage the large territory.

The military command was separated from civilian rule. A Dux Britanniarum was appointed to lead the troops, especially along Hadrian's Wall. This person had a lot of power because Britain was far from the main Roman government.

In 306 AD, Emperor Constantius Chlorus returned to Britain to campaign against northern tribes. He died in York that same year. His son, Constantine the Great, was with him and used Britain as his starting point to become emperor.

In the middle of the 4th century, Britain faced increasing attacks from Saxons in the east and Scoti (Irish) in the west. In 367 AD, a major attack, sometimes called the Great Conspiracy, overwhelmed Roman Britain. Many cities were looted. General Theodosius the Elder was sent to restore order. He successfully drove out the invaders and reorganized the province, even creating a new province called Valentia.

Another leader, Magnus Maximus, declared himself emperor in Britain in 383 AD. He took troops from Britain to fight on the continent. This left Britain more vulnerable to raids from the Irish. Maximus was defeated in 388 AD. Around 396 AD, there were more barbarian attacks, and more Roman troops were withdrawn from Britain to fight elsewhere in the Empire. By 401 AD, even more troops were removed.

The End of Roman Rule

End of Roman rule in Britain, 383–410

By the early 5th century, Roman rule in Britain was under great pressure. There weren't enough troops to defend against constant attacks. In 407 AD, the Roman army in Britain chose a soldier named Constantine III to be emperor. He took many troops to Gaul, and it's unclear how many ever returned.

A Saxon attack in 408 AD was fought off by the Britons themselves. In 409 AD, historical records suggest that the Britons expelled the Roman civilian government. Emperor Honorius sent a letter in 410 AD, which is often seen as him telling the Britons they were on their own. With the Roman military and government gone, local leaders and towns took over administration. This period is known as Sub-Roman Britain.

According to British tradition, pagan Saxons were invited by a leader named Vortigern to help fight other tribes. However, these new arrivals rebelled, leading to wars that resulted in the Saxon takeover of much of lowland Britain by 600 AD. Many Britons fled to places like Brittany and Ireland. The "Groans of the Britons" in 446 AD was a plea for help against the Saxons that went unanswered.

Historians generally do not believe in the historical existence of King Arthur, who is a legendary figure said to have fought against the Anglo-Saxon conquest.

Trade in Roman Britain

During the Roman period, Britain traded mostly with continental Europe across the North Sea and English Channel. Important British ports included London and Richborough.

Britain imported many goods, such as Roman coins, pottery (especially red-gloss terra sigillata), olive oil, wine, salted fish, and glass. It's harder to find archaeological evidence for what Britain exported. But it likely included metals like silver, gold, lead, iron, and copper. Agricultural products, oysters, and salt were also probably exported.

This trade happened through private businesses and also through payments and contracts from the Roman government to support its army and officials. In the first two centuries, Britain imported more than it exported because of the large Roman army stationed there.

Some historians believe that trade declined in the late 1st century AD. This might have been because Britain started producing more of its own goods. Others suggest the biggest decline was in the late 2nd century AD, due to major problems across the Roman Empire, like plagues and wars.

From the mid-3rd century onwards, Britain received fewer foreign imports. However, many coins from continental mints still reached the island. In the mid-4th century, Britain exported large amounts of grain to the continent. This was partly because the Roman army in Britain became smaller, freeing up more goods for export.

Economy of Roman Britain

Industrial production in Roman Britain

Development of Dolaucothi Gold Mines in Wales

The Romans greatly improved mining in Britain. For example, the Dolaucothi Gold Mines in Wales were likely first worked by the Roman army around 75 AD. They used advanced methods like hydraulic mining, where water from aqueducts was used to wash away soil and find ore. If gold veins were found, they used fire-setting to break up the rock.

Other mining areas, like the ironworks in the Weald, lead and silver mines in the Mendip Hills, and tin mines in Cornwall, were probably run by private companies. The Romans brought new technology and large-scale production to the mining industry.

By the 3rd and 4th centuries, small towns often grew near large farms called villas. These towns provided specialist tools and goods for farmers. Lowland Britain was very successful in farming during the 4th century, even exporting grain to the continent. This wealth led to many beautiful villas being built and decorated.

Roman towns were also centers for trade and goods. In the early Roman period, Britain relied heavily on imported pottery. But by the 4th century, it produced enough pottery for itself. One town, Durobrivae, was famous for making pottery. Britain's economy became diverse and well-established, with trade reaching even the non-Romanized north.

Government in Roman Britain

Provinces like Britain, which needed a permanent army, were controlled directly by the Emperor. These imperial provinces were run by governors who were important members of the Roman Senate. Governors were chosen for their military and administrative skills.

In Britain, a governor's main job was military. But they also handled diplomacy with local kings, built roads, managed the public postal system, oversaw local towns, and acted as judges. When not fighting, they traveled the province to hear complaints and recruit soldiers.

The governor had an advisor for legal matters. Financial matters were handled by a procurator. Each Roman legion in Britain had its own commander who reported to the governor. There was also a network of managers for intelligence, reports to Rome, military supplies, and prisoners.

Colchester was likely the first capital of Roman Britain, but London soon became more important due to its strong trade links. Roman towns were organized into civitates (public towns) and vici (small towns). Civitates were formally planned and had public buildings. They were governed by local landowners who elected officials. These towns sent representatives to a yearly provincial council to show loyalty to Rome and worship the imperial cult.

People and Places

Roman Britain had a population of about 2.8 to 3 million people by the end of the 2nd century. By the end of the 4th century, it grew to an estimated 3.6 million people. This included about 125,000 Roman soldiers and their families. The urban population was around 240,000 people, with Londinium (London) having about 60,000 residents.

Londinium was a very diverse city. People came from all over the Roman Empire, including Britain itself, continental Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. Other Roman-British towns also had diverse populations due to migration. A 2012 study found that about 45% of Roman sites had at least one person of North African origin.

Towns and Countryside

Britannia as shown on an ancient Roman map (a 1486 copy of Ptolemy's 2nd-century map)

The Romans founded many important settlements in Britain, and some of these still exist today. However, many Roman towns declined in the late 4th century. Public building stopped, and some areas were abandoned. While some Roman towns were continuously occupied, many were not. The idea of a town as a center of power was largely reintroduced later.

Roman towns fell into two main types:

• Civitates (public towns): These were formally planned with a grid layout and had public buildings. Examples include York, Colchester, Gloucester, and Lincoln.
• Vici (small towns): These grew informally, often around a military camp, a river crossing, or a crossroads. Some were quite large, while others were barely urban.

Here are some cities and towns with Roman origins:

Religion in Roman Britain

Pagan Beliefs

An artist's reconstruction of Pagans Hill Roman Temple, Somerset

The druids, who were Celtic priests and believed to have originated in Britain, were outlawed by Emperor Claudius. In 61 AD, they tried to defend their sacred groves on the island of Mona (Anglesey) from Roman destruction.

Under Roman rule, Britons continued to worship their native Celtic gods. Often, they combined these gods with Roman ones, like Mars Rigonemetos. It's hard to know exactly how much of the old Celtic beliefs survived. However, some traditions, like the importance of the number three and water sources, remained.

Worship of the Roman emperor was common, especially at military sites. The building of a Roman temple to Claudius in Camulodunum was one of the reasons for Boudica's revolt. By the 3rd century, pagan temples like Pagans Hill Roman Temple in Somerset existed peacefully.

Eastern religions, such as Mithraism, became popular later in the Roman occupation. The London Mithraeum is an example of these mystery religions, which were often popular among soldiers.

Christianity in Roman Britain

The fourth-century Chi-Rho fresco from Lullingstone Roman Villa, Kent, contains the only known Christian paintings from the Roman era in Britain.

It's not clear when Christianity first arrived in Britain. A "word square" found in Mamucium (Roman Manchester) from the 2nd century might be an early Christian artifact. The first clear written evidence for Christianity in Britain comes from around 200 AD, when a writer named Tertullian mentioned that even parts of Britain "inaccessible to the Romans" were "subjugated to Christ."

Archaeological evidence for Christian communities appears in the 3rd and 4th centuries. Small timber churches might have existed in Lincoln and Silchester. Baptismal fonts have been found in Icklingham and Richborough. The Water Newton Treasure, a collection of Christian silver church plates from the early 4th century, was also found. Roman villas like Lullingstone and Hinton St Mary had Christian wall paintings and mosaics.

The Church in Britain developed a system with bishops. Records from the Council of Arles in 314 AD show that three bishops from Britain attended: Eborius of York, Restitutus of London, and Adelphius (possibly from Lincoln).

Saint Alban, the first British Christian martyr, is believed to have died in the early 4th century. Christianity became legal in the Roman Empire in 313 AD under Constantine I. By 391 AD, Emperor Theodosius I made Christianity the official state religion of the Empire. A British monk named Pelagius developed a different Christian belief, known as Pelagianism, which was considered a heresy by church authorities.

Environmental Changes

The Romans brought new species to Britain. These included the now-rare Roman nettle, which soldiers supposedly used to warm themselves. They also introduced the edible snail Helix pomatia. There is some evidence they might have brought smaller, southern Mediterranean rabbits. The common European rabbit seen in Britain today was likely introduced after the Norman invasion in 1066. The plant Box (Buxus sempervirens) became much more common in towns and villas during the Roman period.

Roman Legacy

Roman roads around 150 AD

During their time in Britain, the Romans built a huge network of roads. Many of these roads are still used today. They also created systems for water supply, sanitation, and wastewater. Many of Britain's major cities, such as London (Londinium), Manchester (Mamucium), and York (Eboracum), were founded by the Romans. However, the original Roman settlements were often abandoned not long after the Romans left.

Unlike many other parts of the Western Roman Empire, the main language spoken in Britain today is not a Romance language (like French or Spanish). The language spoken in Britain before and during Roman times was Common Brittonic. This language later developed into regional languages like Welsh and Cornish. About 800 Latin words were added to Common Brittonic. The current main language, English, comes from the languages of Germanic tribes who moved to the island from Europe starting in the 5th century.

Related pages

• Roman Empire
• History of the United Kingdom
• Roman Wales
• Sub-Roman Britain

See also

In Spanish: Britania (provincia romana) para niños