Government in Anglo-Saxon England facts for kids
Government in Anglo-Saxon England covers English government during the Anglo-Saxon period from the 5th century until the Norman Conquest in 1066. The section "Before unification" examines the development of the early petty kingdoms and their absorption by the Kingdom of Wessex in the 9th century. The remainder of the article describes both central and local government in the unified Kingdom of England. See Government in medieval England for developments after 1066.
Contents
Before unification
Petty kingdoms (400–871)
The governing institutions of Anglo-Saxon England were based on Germanic law and custom. Germanic tribes such as the Ostrogoths, Visigoths, Franks, and Lombards became Romanized to varying degrees by the 5th century. Nevertheless, this was not true of the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, who originated from northern Germany and Denmark and had no direct contact with the Roman Empire. For this reason, Roman law only influenced Anglo-Saxon institutions after Christianisation began in the 7th century.
In the 5th and 6th centuries, the Anglo-Saxons migrated to Britain and established agricultural communities. Initially, warlords led extended kinship groups, but petty kingdoms developed slowly over the 6th century. The most important were the Heptarchy: Kent, Essex, Wessex, Sussex, East Anglia, Mercia, and Northumbria. The Old English word for king was cyning. Kingship was passed down through royal dynasties that all claimed descent from a deity, usually Woden. After Christianisation, royal families linked their origins to biblical genealogies.
When the throne became vacant, a kingdom's witan (secular and ecclesiastical "wise men") chose the new king from among eligible candidates of the ruling dynasty. A candidate's age, ability, popularity, and the wishes of the previous king were all factors that could influence the succession. Since the king's primary role was as a warrior, he needed to be of age and ability to lead an army, and some kings retired to monasteries when they could no longer play a military role. For this reason, succession did not follow strict primogeniture, and infant sons were commonly bypassed in favor of adult brothers. Rites of royal consecration developed slowly. In 787, Ecgfrith of Mercia became the first Anglo-Saxon king anointed with holy oil, imitating Carolingian and biblical precedents.
Witans could formally depose kings. Cynewulf and the West-Saxon witan deposed King Sigeberht in 757. Councils formally deposed several Northumbrian kings. In 774, King Alhred was deposed and replaced by Æthelred I, who was himself ousted in 779. Æthelred was restored as king in 790 and reigned until his murder in 796.
A king had the power to make law and give legal judgment with the advice of his witan. He presided in person as judge of the royal court, which could sentence freemen to death, enslavement, or impose financial penalties. In some instances, the witan could overturn royal decisions. In 840, for example, the Mercian witan ruled that King Berhtwulf had unjustly confiscated land from Heahbeorht, bishop of Worcester. The bishop regained his land, and Berhtwulf gave gifts to the church as compensation. Christianisation resulted in the production of written law codes, the earliest being Kent's Law of Æthelberht. These early laws attempted to preserve the peace and prevent blood feuds .
Kings played a crucial part in converting their kingdoms to Christianity. Afterwards, kings continued to be involved in church affairs. Kings summoned and presided over synods, such as the 664 Synod of Whitby, where Oswiu of Northumbria decided that his kingdom would follow the Roman date of Easter instead of the Celtic date. The church used canon law, a legal system based on Roman civil law.
All free men had the right to bear arms and a duty to defend the kingdom through service in the fyrd (army). The army's core was the king's comitatus, which formed part of the royal household. Fyrd service was one of the obligations known as the trinoda necessitas ("three necessities"). The other two were equally related to military preparedness: the repair of burhs (fortifications) and the repair of bridges (essential for communications).
Kingdoms had different administrative divisions, such as the shire in Wessex, lathe in Kent, or rape in Sussex. In the 8th century, the term ealdorman first appeared in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. In Wessex, these were royal officials tasked with leading the army and administering justice in a shire. In return, an ealdorman received part of the judicial fines owed to the king. He also may have been granted land for his service. Sometimes, ealdormen were former kings reduced to sub-king status; such was the case in Mercia's absorption of the Hwicce.
Before the 8th century, one king was periodically named the bretwalda ("wide-ruler" or "ruler of Britain"). Bede wrote that the bretwalda possessed imperium over other kingdoms, and Adamnan used the term imperator. Historian H. R. Loyn remarked that "some hazy imperial ideas" were associated with the title, such as influence over the English church, military leadership against the native Britons, and receiving tribute.
The balance of power among the kingdoms changed over time. Between 654 and 685, Northumbria was the dominant kingdom. The 8th century was a period of Mercian supremacy. Wessex surpassed Mercia in the 820s during the reign of Ecgberht. In the 860s and 870s, Vikings conquered half of England, a territory known as the Danelaw. The kings of Wessex led Anglo-Saxon resistance and formed the unified Kingdom of England.
Consolidation under Alfred the Great (871–899)
In the 850s, Viking invaders arrived in England, and their Great Heathen Army conquered most Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. Under Alfred the Great (r. 871 – 899), Wessex successfully resisted the invaders. In 878, Alfred defeated a Viking army under Guthrum. Around 886, the two leaders negotiated a peace agreement known as the Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum, which established the boundaries of the Danelaw. Alfred received the submission of all the English (including London) not under the Danelaw.
In response to the Viking invasions, royal government in Wessex became more sophisticated and effective. Alfred strengthened his kingdom's military organisation, building over 30 burhs (fortifications), some of which became permanent towns. Alfred allocated each burh several hides to provide for its maintenance and support, as illustrated in the Burghal Hidage.
Under Alfred, there were always nine or ten ealdormen. Each West Saxon shire had one ealdorman, with two for East and West Kent. An ealdorman was responsible for the army, fortifications, and tax collection in his shire. They were granted estates and special privileges, such as the "third penny" (a third of the shire court's judicial profits). After Alfred's time, the number of ealdormen diminished. In the 10th century, there were usually only two or three in Wessex, four or five in Mercia, and after 965, only one in Northumbria.
The royal reeves (Latin: praepositi) supervised royal estates and had responsibility for administering finances and manpower.
Royal government
Succession
From 899 to 1016, a direct descendant of Alfred the Great of the House of Wessex sat on the English throne. From 1016 to 1042, the Danish House of Knýtlinga possessed the throne. Edward the Confessor (r. 1042 – 1066) briefly restored the House of Wessex to power. However, he was succeeded in 1066 by Harold Godwinson and then William the Conqueror (r. 1066 – 1087).
Theoretically, an element of election was inherent in kingship. Abbot Ælfric of Eynsham expressed this theory in a sermon:
No man can make himself king, but the people has the choice to select as king whom they please; but after he is consecrated as king, he then has dominion over the people, and they cannot shake his yoke from their necks.
Only descendants of Cerdic, the first West Saxon king, were eligible candidates for kingship. By the 10th century, only sons of kings were considered eligible for kingship and the title of ætheling. Beyond this, there were no strict rules for determining the next king. This lack created conflict whenever a king died. Æthelwold, son of Æthelred I (r. 865 – 871) and Alfred's nephew, disputed Edward the Elder's (r. 899 – 924) right to be king and allied with the Danes against Edward. Edward's death also instigated a succession crisis, as did the death of his grandson, Edgar (r. 959 – 975). Disputes emerged when kings had sons by different wives or illegitimate sons tried to claim the throne.
Sons usually succeeded their fathers, but older relatives could take precedence over young sons. Edmund I (r. 939 – 946) was succeeded by his brother Eadred (r. 946 – 955) because his sons were too young. Edmund's son Eadwig (r. 955 – 959) became king upon the death of his childless uncle.
In their coronations, kings made a three-part oath to protect the church, to punish criminals, and to do justice to all Christian people. This oath would form the basis for later coronation charters and, ultimately, Magna Carta. Following the oath, kings were anointed with holy oil. Similar to priests, anointing set kings apart from all others. An anointed king could not be lawfully deposed, so a bad king was viewed as God's punishment for sin.
In the 10th century, coronations typically took place at Kingston upon Thames. Edward the Confessor was crowned at Winchester. In 1066, Harold Godwinson was crowned at the newly consecrated Westminster Abbey, which remained the customary place of coronation for future kings.
Royal household
The royal household and court were the center of Anglo-Saxon government and performed the executive functions of government. England did not yet have a capital city in which the government was permanently based; though, Winchester and London were both important cities. The king's household and court were itinerant. King's traveled constantly throughout southern England (where most royal estates were located) and less often to the north.
The household included the immediate royal family, the queen and æthelings. Ealdormen and thegns served regularly at court. Most would do so on a revolving basis as the king visited different areas of the kingdom, but a core remained in virtually constant attendance. There were important officers such as discthegns and birele, and a large number of priests worked in the royal chapel.
Within the chapel was a writing office dedicated to producing charters, writs, royal letters, and other official documents. Charters or "landbooks" were written in Latin and recorded royal grants of bookland to the church or individuals. A writ was a brief letter from the king with instructions to an official authenticated with a seal hanging from the document like a pendant. It was more efficient than a traditional charter. Literate priests and clerks (i.e., clerics) worked in the chancery and, at least by the reign of Edward the Confessor, had custody of the great seal used to authenticate writs. The royal reliquary had custody of documents. By the Confessor's time, it was located permanently at Winchester, along with the royal treasure. Service in the royal chapel could be a stepping stone towards becoming a bishop.
It is unclear when the English treasury developed as a recognisable institution. Before 1066, there was no treasurer, but certain officials within the royal chamber or wardrobe (such as chamberlains or hordere) were responsible for financial matters at various times. By the 11th century, royal treasure was being kept at Winchester.
Judicial authority
In judicial matters, the king had final authority over all freemen, who had the right to bring appeals to the royal court. In the 10th century, judicial processes became more efficient and certain offenses were placed solely within the king's jurisdiction, with violation of the royal protection (mund), murder, treason, arson, and neglect of military service, among others.
Kings and shire courts could declare someone an outlaw.
Witan
To maintain authority, kings had to depend on the great men of the realm—ealdormen, thegns, bishops, and abbots. But it was impossible for kings to monitor all of these officials, even with an itinerant court. It was much easier to summon the great men to royal councils—meetings of the witan or "wise men". The witan was a meeting of the king and his noblemen, but there was no defined membership or size. Some witans could have a hundred attendees, while others only a handful. When English kings claimed overlordship over their Welsh neighbors, the Welsh kings might also be in attendance. The presence of high-ranking churchmen was important, but not all witans included churchmen.
Any significant government act would take place in a witan, such as the declaration of a royal will or the promulgation of a law code. Charters granting land would be authenticated in witans. Witans could also be concerned with ecclesiastical matters (such as promulgation of church law), and could be indistinguishable from church synods. When a king died, the witan formally elected a new king (even if in reality this was often a rubber stamp of a decision made elsewhere). When a king gained power by conquest, he was careful to gain the witan's assent as well.
The witan served a largely deliberative and consultative role. It considered a wide variety of business, including financial and judicial. Discussion occurred in the English language. Refusal to appear before a witan could be punished by heavy fines and even outlawry.
Coinage and taxation
The Anglo-Saxon coinage was the best in Europe. Only the king had the right to issue coins. Æthelstan ordered every burh to have a mint, and there were 70 mints in the reign of Edward the Confessor. The government kept tight control over the quality and design of the coinage. Moneyers were required to use official coin dies and faced strict penalties for producing counterfeit money. In this period, only the silver penny was in circulation. Shillings, pounds, and marks were units of account.
Anglo-Saxon kings were traditionally paid food render. By the 10th century, these payments were overshadowed in importance by the geld, a land tax based on hidage. There were different kinds of geld. After Viking attacks resumed in the 980s, English kings used Danegeld to fund tribute payments until England's conquest by Danish prince Cnut the Great. Cnut instituted the heregeld, which was used to pay soldiers and sailors. The heregeld was abolished in 1049 by Edward the Confessor, who placed responsibility for naval defense on the Cinque Ports in return for special privileges. Geld continued to be levied annually at a normal rate of 2 shillings per hide for the rest of the Anglo-Saxon period.
Local government
England was divided into shires (counties) under the supervision of an ealdorman (later earl). Twice a year, a shire court met with the ealdorman and bishop. Shires were subdivided into hundreds, and the hundred court met once a month. All men within a hundred were organised into tithings. Boroughs were separate from the hundreds and had their own assemblies (variously termed burghmoot, portmanmoot, or husting). London's Court of Husting had the authority of a shire court and that city was subdivided into wards. The smallest unit was the tun (vill to the Normans).
For information on Anglo-Saxon court procedure, see Anglo-Saxon law.
