History of the Incas facts for kids
The Inca Empire was a huge and powerful society in South America. Its heart was in modern-day Peru and Chile. The empire stretched along the great Andes mountain range for about 4,000 kilometres (2,500 mi). It lasted from 1438 until 1533. It was the largest empire in the Americas before Europeans arrived. The state began in the early 1200s as the small Kingdom of Cuzco. It was started by a leader named Manco Cápac. Later rulers made deals and won battles to grow beyond the city of Cusco into the Sacred Valley. The empire expanded very quickly under the ninth ruler, named Pachacuti, and his family.
The Incas brought many different groups into their lands. Some joined through peaceful agreements, while others joined after conquest. After a big internal conflict called the Inca Civil War, the Spanish explorer Francisco Pizarro arrived. The last great emperor, named Atahualpa, was captured. This marked the start of Spanish control over the region. Some survivors moved into the deep mountains of Vilcabamba. There, they formed the smaller Neo-Inca State. That final stronghold fell in 1572.
In their own language, called Quechua, the empire was named Tawantinsuyu. This name means "The Four United Regions." The word tawa means four, and suyu means a region or province. The four parts met at the capital city of Cuzco.
Contents
Historical Records and Clues
Spanish Writings
The earliest written accounts about the Inca Empire were created by European chroniclers. Later, writers of mixed heritage called mestizo authors also wrote books. They gathered information by talking to native people across the mountains. The authors faced many challenges. They had to deal with language barriers. They also struggled to understand how the Incas saw the world. Because of this, different books sometimes disagree on facts. For example, some chronicles claim that two different rulers did the exact same deeds.
The writers often had their own goals. Some Spanish chroniclers wanted to make the takeover look good. They wrote that the Incas used only force to rule. Other writers worked for the Catholic Church. They tried to connect the Inca religion to stories from Europe, like the tale of Noah. Some indigenous and mixed-ancestry writers wanted to highlight the positive achievements of their royal families, called Panakas. A famous author named Inca Garcilaso de la Vega wrote the book Comentarios Reales de los Incas. He described a peaceful kingdom where goods were shared nicely among all families.
Native Inca Traditions
The Inca people used traditional family groups called ayllus to help run daily life. Each royal family, known as a panaka, sang special songs about past events. These songs were performed during celebrations before the Sapa Inca. The songs formed an oral history passed down through generations. The Incas also used painted boards and cloths to show the lives of earlier rulers. These historical objects were kept safely inside a special building in Cusco called Puquincancha. A Spanish official named Francisco de Toledo once sent painted cloths to King Philip II to show him Inca history.
The Incas also recorded numbers and ideas using sets of colored strings called quipus. Knots tied along these cords helped leaders remember resources, taxes, and royal deeds. Rulers wanted people to remember their greatest triumphs. Sometimes a ruler left out past events that did not make them look successful. The historian María Rostworowski called this practice an intentional way of reshaping memories. Later on, European ideas mixed together with Andean ideas in a process called syncretism. This mixture made it tricky for modern researchers to separate original Inca facts from later additions.
Timeline of Inca Rulers
Historians divide the history of Cusco into several main eras. The following table shows the early timeline created by Peruvian researcher José Antonio del Busto Duthurburu.
| Period | Leader or Group | Estimated Year | Important Details |
|---|---|---|---|
| Legendary Period | Manco Cápac | 1285 | Founding of the city of Cusco. |
| Sinchi Roca | 1305 | Second ruler of the city. | |
| Monarchical Period | Hurin Dynasty | 1320 | Rule of Lloque Yupanqui, Mayta Cápac, and Cápac Yupanqui. |
| Hanan Dynasty | 1370 | Rule of Inca Roca, Yawar Waqaq, and Viracocha Inca. | |
| Imperial Period | Pachacuti | 1425 | Huge expansion of territory begins. |
| Tupac Yupanqui | 1471 | Expanded lands far to the north and south. | |
| Huayna Capac | 1488 | Ruled until around 1528. |
Other timelines come from early chroniclers like Juan de Betanzos and Pedro Cieza de León. Modern researchers, like John Howland Rowe, Federico Kauffmann Doig, Ann Kendall, and John Alden Mason, have examined these dates closely. They compared the written stories with tools and buildings found in the ground. While exact years are hard to confirm, the order of the rulers helps historians understand how the society developed.
Legends of Inca Origins
The Ayar Brothers
An old legend tells that four pairs of brothers and sisters walked out of a place named Paqariq Tampu. Their names were Ayar Cachi, Ayar Uchu, Ayar Auca, and Ayar Manco, along with Mama Huaco, Mama Cura, Mama Raua, and Mama Ocllo. They traveled toward a high mountain named Wanakawri. Ayar Cachi had amazing strength. He shot a rock from his sling and created a huge mountain ravine called a quebrada. His brothers feared his immense power. They tricked him into going back to the cave to gather gold treasures, then sealed the entrance behind him.
The remaining travelers planted crops near Wanakawri for a year. From a nearby hilltop, they looked down upon the green valley of Cusco. A local leader named Alcaviza lived there in a modest village. The siblings decided this valley was the perfect place to build a city. Ayar Uchu grew wings, flew toward the heavens, and returned with a message from the sun god, Inti. He told his brother to adopt the name Manco Cápac. Ayar Uchu then transformed into a sacred stone monument called a huaca.
The remaining group walked into the valley carrying special corn seeds. Mama Huaco used a throwing weapon called a bolas to defend the travelers. Alcaviza welcomed them into the settlement. Together, they established the city of Cusco and planted fields of corn. Manco Capac and Mama Ocllo had a child named Sinchi Roca, who grew up to lead the people after his father. Many chroniclers, such as Bernabé Cobo, Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa, and Martín de Murúa, wrote down versions of this tale.
Manco Capac and Mama Ocllo
Another famous story was written down by Inca Garcilaso de la Vega. In this tale, the sun god looked down and wanted to help humanity learn better ways to live. He sent his son Manco Cápac and his daughter Mama Ocllo down to Earth. The sun god placed them in the waters of Lake Titicaca. He gave them a golden rod and gave them a clear mission. Wherever they stopped to rest, they had to push the rod against the ground. When the rod sank easily into the soil with a single tap, they were to build their capital there.
The pair traveled north from Lake Titicaca. They passed through Paqariq Tampu and arrived at a hill named Huanacauri. Manco Capac pushed the golden rod against the earth, and it vanished into the rich soil. He said that the sun wanted them to make their home right there in the valley. Manco Capac gathered the men of the area to teach them how to farm and construct buildings. Mama Ocllo gathered the women to teach them how to weave cloth. They divided Cusco into two parts: upper Cusco, called Hanan, and lower Cusco, called Hurin.
Historical Explanations
Historians have another theory about how the Incas really started. Long ago, another great civilization called the Tiwanaku Empire thrived near Lake Titicaca. Invading groups, including people who spoke an Aymara language, attacked Tiwanaku. Scientists like Max Uhle discovered unfinished walls that show the city was abandoned suddenly. Many survivors spoke the Puquina language. They moved northward looking for a new home.
This group reached the valley of Cusco. They met other groups already living in the area. Instead of fighting everyone, the newcomers made smart family agreements. Inca chiefs married relatives of local leaders. They shared food and traded gifts through their ayllu systems. These friendly agreements helped the early Incas protect their new community without fighting constant wars.
The Early Kingdom of Cusco
The Kingdom of Cusco lasted from the 1200s until around 1438. The government had two royal branches: the Hurin dynasty and the Hanan dynasty. In the beginning, Hurin rulers managed both political choices and religious rites. Later, Inca Roca took control of the government for the Hanan branch. After that change, Hurin leaders handled religious duties led by a high priest called the Willaq Umu. Meanwhile, the Hanan leaders commanded the army, built roads, and settled legal disputes.
Early rulers worked hard to defend their town from rivals like the Ayarmaca and the Chanka. The most dangerous challenge arrived when the Chanka army marched directly toward Cusco. The old ruler Viracocha Inca thought the battle was lost and left the city. However, his brave son, Prince Cusi Yupanqui, stayed behind. He gathered soldiers and defended the capital. The prince won a huge victory and defeated the attackers. After this triumph, he took the name Pachacuti, which means "he who transforms the world." He became the new Sapa Inca and turned Cusco into a grand empire.
The Mighty Inca Empire
Pachacuti Rebuilds the Nation
Pachacuti changed the small kingdom into Tawantinsuyu. He organized the nation with a central government in the capital and four large regions. These regions were Chinchasuyu, Antisuyu, Kuntisuyu, and Qullasuyu. Four paved stone highways ran directly out from Cusco into these provinces. Pachacuti also ordered the building of famous stone estates, including the mountaintop retreat of Machu Picchu.
Before attacking new lands, Pachacuti sent scouts to inspect their defenses, farms, and treasures. Then, he sent messengers offering gifts, like bright woven clothes, to the local leaders. He explained that joining the empire would bring good trade and security. Many leaders agreed right away. The Incas invited the children of local chiefs to Cusco. There, the youth learned Inca laws, customs, and language before returning home to govern.
Expansion Under Later Emperors
Pachacuti's son, Topa Inca Yupanqui, led the armies north. In 1463, he attacked the rich coastal Kingdom of Chimor. The Chimu people built large cities and were skilled metalworkers, but the Incas won the war. Tupac Yupanqui later became emperor in 1471. He traveled far south toward the Maule River. He also conducted an imperial census to count every family. He organized regular community projects through systems called Minka and Mit'a.
The next emperor, Huayna Capac, pushed the empire's borders into parts of modern Ecuador, Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile. The empire included millions of people from dozens of different backgrounds. Communities paid their taxes by working on roads, farming terraces, or building forts. Inca markets did not use money or coins. Instead, people traded goods directly with one another.
The Conflict Between Two Brothers
In 1525, a sudden illness struck the northern city of Quito. Historians believe this illness was smallpox, which had entered South America from Central America. The sickness caused the unexpected death of Emperor Huayna Capac and his chosen heir.
Back in Cusco, noble leaders selected his son Huáscar to be the new ruler. Meanwhile, another son, Atahualpa, was in Quito with the royal army. Huascar worried that his brother would challenge him for the throne. Atahualpa offered to stay in the north peacefully, but Huascar mistrusted his brother's intentions. Soon, a large war broke out between the two brothers and their armies. Atahualpa's seasoned generals won key battles across the Andes. Eventually, Atahualpa's soldiers captured Huascar, ending the struggle for the throne.
The Spanish Arrival
In 1532, Spanish explorer Francisco Pizarro landed on the Pacific coast. He had just 170 soldiers and 27 horses. He marched inland through the city of Piura. Another Spanish officer, Hernando de Soto, rode ahead to find Atahualpa. The Inca ruler was resting with his large army in the mountain town of Cajamarca.
Pizarro invited Atahualpa to a meeting in the town square. When the emperor arrived with an unarmed retinue, Spanish soldiers attacked by surprise at the Battle of Cajamarca. The Incas had never seen firearms or horses before. The Spanish captured Atahualpa. The emperor offered to fill a large room once with gold and twice with silver in exchange for his freedom. Inca leaders carried tons of precious objects from across the kingdom to pay the ransom. However, the Spanish did not release Atahualpa, and they executed him in 1533.
Resistance by Inca Generals
Three of Atahualpa's top generals fought back bravely:
- Chalcuchímac led troops in the south, but the Spanish captured him.
- Quizquiz attacked Spanish bases at Jauja and Cusco before retreating into the northern mountains.
- Rumiñahui organized a strong defense near Quito. He fought Spanish forces led by Sebastián de Belalcázar and Diego de Almagro. When Rumiñahui saw that Quito would fall, he burned the city and hid valuable treasures so the invaders could not take them.
The Neo-Inca State in Vilcabamba
The Spanish put a young prince named Manco Inca Yupanqui on the throne, hoping he would follow their orders. Instead, Manco Inca gathered an army and fought back. In 1536, he led a major attempt to retake Cusco during the famous Siege of Cusco.
When the attack did not succeed, Manco Inca led his people into the thick forests of Vilcabamba. There, he founded the Neo-Inca State. For 36 years, this hidden kingdom stayed independent. They defended their mountain home and fought off multiple attacks. In 1572, Spanish troops found the mountain fortress. They captured the final Inca ruler, named Túpac Amaru. His defeat brought an end to the royal Inca state.
Life After the Conquest
After taking control, the Spanish changed how people lived across the Andes. They used the old Inca labor system, known as the mita, to force people to work inside dangerous silver mines, such as the famous mountain mine at Potosí.
Even though the empire fell, Andean culture stayed strong. Spanish priests used native languages like Quechua and Aymara to teach their religion, which helped keep those spoken languages alive. Today, millions of people in Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador still speak these traditional languages. Some native families kept their noble titles for many decades by attending special schools. In 1780, an indigenous leader led the famous Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II to protect local rights. The incredible stone buildings, vast mountain roads, and farming terraces built by the Incas remain famous landmarks admired by people all around the world today.
Related pages
