Italian Mare Nostrum facts for kids

Map of the Italian Mare Nostrum in 1942. The green shows areas controlled by Italy, and the red shows British areas.

Italian Torpedo Bomber SM.79 "Sparviero" flying over the Mediterranean Sea in 1942.

Italian Mare Nostrum was a name used during World War II by Benito Mussolini and his government. It referred to the Mediterranean Sea when it was largely controlled by the Kingdom of Italy. The name means "Our Sea" in Latin.

Mussolini's Dream for the Mediterranean Sea

The Mediterranean Sea was first called Mare Nostrum ("Our Sea") many centuries ago during the time of the Roman Empire. Mussolini, who led Italy, wanted to bring back the greatness of the Roman Empire after Italy conquered Ethiopia in 1936.

Mussolini believed Italy was the strongest country in the Mediterranean after World War I. He said that the 1900s would be a time of Italian power. He built one of the world's strongest navies to control the Mediterranean Sea.

However, in 1940, Britain actually controlled most of the Mediterranean. The British had strong naval bases in important places like Gibraltar, Malta, and Cyprus. They also controlled the Suez Canal with France. France had a strong navy too and controlled parts of North Africa. It was only after Italy conquered Greece and Yugoslavia in April 1941 that Mussolini began to truly speak of an Italian-controlled Mediterranean.

In 1942, Mussolini dreamed of creating a "Greater Italy" in his "Mare Nostrum." He imagined a much larger Italian Empire that would stretch from the Mediterranean coast of Egypt all the way to the Indian Ocean coasts of Somalia and eastern Kenya. These big plans disappeared when Italy was defeated in September 1943.

Which Coasts Did Italy Control?

When Mussolini talked about an "Italian Mare Nostrum" between 1941 and 1943, Italy controlled (either directly or indirectly) the coastlines of these Mediterranean countries:

• France: From June 1940 to September 1943, Italy controlled the Menton riviera, which is between Monte Carlo and the Italian border. From November 1942 to September 1943, they also controlled the area around the Rhone river delta and the French Riviera.
• Corsica: Italy controlled this island from November 1942 to September 1943.
• Italy: Italy's own coastline stretched from the Alps to Istria. The Governatorato di Dalmazia (a part of Dalmatia) was added between April 1941 and September 1943.
• Yugoslavia: From April 1941 to September 1943, Italy controlled all the coasts of Croatia and Montenegro.
• Albania: Italy controlled the entire coast from 1939 to September 1943. Saseno island was also Italian.
• Greece: From April 1941 to September 1943, Italy controlled the mainland coast from Epirus to Thessaly. They also controlled most of the Aegean Islands, including eastern Crete.
• Dodecanese: These islands were Italian from World War I until September 1943.
• Tunisia: Italy controlled Tunisia from November 1942 to May 1943.
• Libya: Libya was an Italian colony from 1911 to 1943.
• Egypt: The western coast of Egypt, up to El Alamein, was sometimes controlled by Italy and Germany (the Axis powers) between June 1940 and November 1942.

Naval Battles in the Mediterranean During WWII

When France was defeated in 1940, Mussolini began to expand Italy's control over the central Mediterranean. He started attacking British areas. The fighting that followed was called the Battle of the Mediterranean. It had many ups and downs, but in the end, the Allies won.

There were many naval battles between the Allied navies and the Italian Regia Marina (Royal Navy). Examples include the Battle of Cape Matapan and the Battle of Cape Teulada. The British were able to replace their lost warships by moving ships from other parts of the world, and they eventually gained the upper hand.

The Battle of Taranto in 1940 was a big success for the British. Twenty-one British torpedo bombers attacked the Italian Navy while it was in port. They sank one battleship and damaged two others. The Italian Navy slowly recovered from this attack. The Japanese later copied this attack plan at Pearl Harbor.

However, the Italian Navy had a very successful attack on December 19, 1941. Human torpedo divers planted mines on British battleships in Alexandria (Egypt) harbor. The HMS Queen Elizabeth and HMS Valiant were sunk. After these sinkings, and the destruction of the British Force K, the Italian Navy had almost complete control of the central Mediterranean for a few months. This allowed the Italian Navy to deliver military supplies and oil for the Axis victory at Tobruk and their advance towards El Alamein in Egypt.

Italy's Air Force: Regia Aeronautica

The Italian Air Force (Regia Aeronautica) started the war with 3,296 airplanes. About 1,332 were bombers and 1,160 were "Caccia" (fighters). However, only 1,796 were ready for combat in June 1940. Most of these planes were older models, often made of wood, and could not compete with British aircraft in 1940.

But in April 1941, when Italy and Germany began their combined Axis attack in the Mediterranean (in the Balkans and Libya), the Italian Air Force had new, better planes. These included the Macchi C.202, which could successfully fight British Spitfires. These planes, along with the new Reggiane Re.2002, helped Italy and Germany control the skies over Malta and Libya. This helped General Rommel's successful campaign in Tobruk.

Even more modern planes like the Macchi C.205 and Reggiane Re.2005 appeared in early 1943. But by then, the American Air Force had joined the fight and had too many planes for Italy to match.

One of the most famous parts of the Regia Aeronautica was its "torpedo bomber" group. In 1941 and 1942, Italian pilots, mostly flying the three-engined Savoia-Marchetti SM.79 "Sparviero" bomber, caused a lot of damage to Allied ships in the Mediterranean Sea.

The only four-engine heavy bomber in the Regia Aeronautica was the Piaggio P.108 B. Bombers from the 274th Long-Range Bombardment group carried out many long-distance bombing raids on Gibraltar from Sardinia in the summer of 1942. This helped the Regia Aeronautica keep its air superiority during those months in the Italian Mare Nostrum.

Italy's Army: Regio Esercito

The Italian Army (Regio Esercito) started the war with 73 divisions (and one fascist "Blackshirts" Legion). But only 19 divisions were fully ready for combat in June 1940. In the early years of WWII, Italy only had small and medium tanks, like the Fiat M13/40 and Fiat M15/42. These tanks were not as good as the Allied tanks. Only in the summer of 1943 did the Italians develop a heavy tank, the P40 tank. However, only 5 were ready for battle when Italy signed the armistice (peace agreement). The Italian Army did have good anti-tank weapons, like the Semovente 75/18, and reliable armored cars, like the AB 41.

At first, the Italian Army had some difficulties, especially in their African colonies. But with help from Germany, they improved. In the spring of 1941, the Italians began an attack in the Balkans (Greece and Yugoslavia) and in North Africa (Libya).

In the summer and autumn of 1942, Italy controlled the European coastlines of the Mediterranean. This stretched from the Rhone river in occupied France to Mount Olympus in Aegean Greece. A similar situation happened on the African shores of the Mediterranean Sea. Mussolini's control went from Tunisia to El Alamein in Egypt. This Italian control was even stronger because most of the other Mediterranean coastlines were controlled by countries friendly to Mussolini. These included fascist Spain under General Franco, Vichy France, and Turkey under Kemal Atatürk.

During these months, Mussolini called the Mediterranean Sea Mare Nostrum, just like the Romans did when they ruled the ancient world. However, the Roman Mare Nostrum lasted for about six hundred years. Mussolini's Mare Nostrum only lasted a few years, until Italy signed the armistice in September 1943.

All of Italy's overseas territories in the Mediterranean Sea (like the Dodecanese islands, Libya, and Saseno island) were officially lost after the Treaty of Peace with Italy in 1947.

Italy's Navy: Regia Marina and the Italian Mare Nostrum

When Italy joined World War II on June 10, 1940, the Italian Royal Navy (Regia Marina) was the fourth largest navy in the world. It had a mix of modern and newly built battleships. The Italian Navy challenged the Allies, especially the British Royal Navy, for control of the Mediterranean Sea.

Air support for the navy came from the Italian Air Force Auxiliary to the Navy (Aviazione Ausiliara per la Marina). This group was in charge of all land-based aircraft, seaplanes, and aircraft on Italian Navy ships.

Italian warships were generally known for being well-designed and good-looking. However, some Italian cruiser ships had weaker armor. Also, most Italian warships did not have radar for much of the war. But they did have good "rangefinder" and "fire-control" systems, which helped them aim their weapons. Another difference was that Allied commanders at sea could make their own decisions. Italian commanders, however, had to follow very strict orders from the Italian Naval Headquarters (Supermarina). This sometimes meant they avoided action even when they had an advantage. The Italian Naval Headquarters knew that Britain could replace lost ships, but Italy had limited resources.

The Allies had "Ultra" intercepts, which were secret messages that helped them predict Italian movements. They also had radar, which allowed them to find ships and aim their weapons from far away, even at night. The British Fleet Air Arm (naval air force) also had better air reconnaissance skills and worked closely with their ships. These were major reasons for Italy's early defeats, like in the Battle of Cape Matapan.

The most successful attack by the Italian Navy involved divers planting mines on British battleships in Alexandria harbor on December 19, 1941. The HMS Queen Elizabeth and HMS Valiant were sunk in shallow water by the "maiali" (human torpedoes) of Luigi Durand De La Penne.

On the same night, Force K, a group of three cruisers and four destroyers based at Malta, hit an Italian minefield off Tripoli. One cruiser (HMS Neptune) and one destroyer (HMS Kandahar) were lost. Three other ships were badly damaged, and over 900 sailors died. Force K was put out of action, and Malta's ability to attack was greatly reduced.

This sudden series of Allied defeats allowed the Regia Marina to gain control of the central Mediterranean Sea. For several months, their supply routes were almost untouched by the enemy. This was the beginning of nearly a year when the Mediterranean Sea was truly an "Italian Mare Nostrum."

The Italian fleet also took advantage of the situation and went on the attack. They blocked or badly damaged at least three large Allied convoys heading for Malta. This led to several naval battles, such as the Second Battle of Sirte, the Battle of Mid-June (also called Operation Harpoon and Operation Vigorous), and finally Operation Pedestal. These battles were mostly favorable to the Axis powers. The biggest success for the Italian Fleet was the air and surface attack on the Harpoon convoy. This attack sank several Allied warships and damaged others. Only two transport ships out of six reached Malta. This was the only clear victory for Italian surface ships in World War II.

During these months, the Regia Marina even planned an attack on New York harbor for December 1942. However, it was delayed and never happened.

But this was only a short period of success for Mussolini. The oil and supplies that reached Malta, despite heavy losses, during Operation Pedestal in August, and the Allied landings in North Africa (Operation Torch) in November 1942, turned the war against Italy. After years of no major changes, the Axis forces were pushed out of Libya and Tunisia within six months after the Battle of El Alamein. Their supply lines were attacked daily by the growing and powerful air and naval forces of the Allies in what had just been Mussolini's "Italian Mare Nostrum."

The Regia Marina fought well and bravely while protecting its convoys to North Africa. However, it was still at a technical disadvantage. Italian ships relied on their speed, but their relatively thin armor meant they could be easily damaged by shells or torpedoes. The final blow to the Italian Navy was a lack of fuel. This forced its main ships to stay in port for most of the last year of Italy's alliance with Germany.

Key Naval Battles in the Italian Mare Nostrum

From the summer/fall of 1941 to November 1942, the Mediterranean Sea was largely an "Italian Mare Nostrum." Italy controlled the central area around the Italian peninsula, Tunisia, and Libya. Here are the main battles and events from those months:

• Attack on the British base at Suda Bay, Crete: On March 26, 1941, Italian destroyers Crispi and Sella carried explosive motor boats. They sank one oil tanker and forced HMS York to be beached and abandoned.
• First Battle of Sirte (1941): This naval battle had no clear winner. However, British warships later ran into a minefield while waiting for an Italian convoy off Tripoli. They lost a cruiser and a destroyer, and over 800 British sailors died.
• Sinking of Battleships HMS Queen Elizabeth and HMS Valiant in Alexandria Harbor: Italian frogmen sank these ships on December 19, 1941.
• Second Battle of Sirte (March 22, 1942): An Allied convoy escort was heavily attacked by the Italian battleship Littorio. The escort ships managed to escape, but the cargo ships were destroyed by air attacks before they could reach Malta. The British had 3 light cruisers and 6 destroyers damaged.
• Battle of Mid-June (1942): Also known as Operation Harpoon and Operation Vigorous. In Operation Harpoon, the destroyer HMS Bedouin, tanker Kentucky, and merchant ships Burdwan and Chant were sunk by combined air and surface attacks. In Operation Vigorous, the Italian Fleet blocked a convoy of 11 cargo ships. The cruiser HMS Hermione and four British destroyers were sunk by German E-boats and Axis aircraft.
• Battle of Mid-August (1942): Also known as Operation Pedestal. The cruiser HMS Manchester and four merchant ships were sunk by Italian Torpedo Boats. Two other cruisers and three steamers were sunk by submarines and air strikes. This was the last major success for Italian forces, supported by the Germans, against the Malta convoys.
• Operation Agreement, September 14, 1942: The Royal Navy tried to attack Tobruk harbor. However, Italian air, coastal, and naval forces quickly counter-attacked. More than 700 British servicemen were killed in this disaster.

Images for kids

• 

  Original Maiale (Italian human torpedo) in an Italian Museum.

• 

  Mayor Teseo Tesei, inventor of the Maiale, as the Italian human torpedo was called, ready to attack Malta.

• 

  Italian Battleship "Conte di Cavour".

• 

  Italian aircraft carrier "Aquila" destroyed by Allied bombings in 1943.

• Blitzer, Wolf. Century of War. Friedman/Fairfax Publishers. New York, 2001 ISBN: 1-58663-342-2
• Buell, Hal. World War II, Album & Chronicle. Tess Press. New York, 2002 ISBN: 1-57912-271-X.
• De Felice, Renzo. Mussolini l'Alleato: Italia in guerra 1940-1943. Rizzoli Ed. Torino, 1990.
• Fleming, Thomas. The New Dealers' War. Perseus Books. New York, 2001 ISBN: 0-465-02464-5
• Holland, James. Fortress Malta: An Island Under Siege, 1940-1943. England: Cassell Military, 2004 ISBN: 0-304-366-544.
• Lamb, Richard. Mussolini as Diplomat. Fromm International Ed. London, 1999 ISBN: 088064244-0
• Petacco, Arrigo. Le battaglie navali del Mediterraneo nella seconda guerra mondiale Mondadori Editore. Milano, 1976
• Weinberg, Gerhard. A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II New York, 2005 ISBN: 0-521-44317-2